/     THE 
L — 


ENGLISH  AND  AMERICAN 
MECHANIC. 


COMPRISING  A  COLLECTION  OF 


Over  3000  Receipts,  Rules  and  Tables, 


JIMIUJIIO  FOB  THB  USB  OF  EVERT 


MECHANIC  AND  MANUFACTURER. 


B.  FRANK  ^AN  CLEVE, 

AUTHOR  AKD  PUBLISHER, 
PHILADELPHIA,  PENNA. 


PRICE,  $9.80.     CLOTH  STJTDTNO. 

The  additions  made  during  the  year  will  be  mailed  to  Subscribers 
on  receipt  of  Fifty  Cents  in  January  of  each  year. 

Mail  the  money  to  above  address. 
Steady  Employment  given  to  Good  Canvatttrt  at  Remvnerativt  Prica, 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1874,  by 

B.  FRANK  VAN  CLEVE, 
in  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


CAXTOH  PBESS  OP  SHESMAN  A  Co.,  PHILADA. 


PREFACE. 


rPHIS  work  is  offered  as  a  valuable  Book  of  Reference 
-*-  for  Mechanics  and  Manufacturers,  trusting  they  will 
find  information  therein  that  will  well  repay  them. 

It  is  the  intention  of  the  Author  to  produce  the  most 
disirable  information  in  the  most  intelligible  form  for 
practical  application. 

The  mechanic  who  has  studied  mathematics  but  little, 
will  find  that  by  studying  some  of  the  brief  rules  herein, 
he  will  get  a  clear  comprehension  of  things  that  would 
otherwise  be  unintelligible  to  him. 

The  Author  acknowledges  his  indebtedness  to  numerous 
English  and  American  authors  for  valuable  material  for 
tables,  etc. 

B.  F.  V. 


THE 

AMERICAN  AND  ENGLISH  MECHANIC. 

EXPLANATION  OF  DIAGRAMS. 


To  find  the  Circumference  of  any  Diameter. 
Fig.  1, 


From  the  centre  C  describe  a  circle  A  B,  having  the  required 
diameter  ;  then  place  the  corner  of  the  square  at  the  centre  C,  and 
draw  the  lines  C  D  and  C  E  ;  then  draw  the  chord  D  E :  three  times 
the  diameter  added  to  the  distance  from  the  middle  of  the  chord 
D  F  E  to  the  middle  of  the  subtending  arc  DOE,  will  be  the  cir- 
cumference sought. 


To  find  the  Area  of  the  Sector  of  a  Circle. 

HULK. — Multiply  the  length  of  the  arc  DG  E  by  its  radius  DC, 
and  half  the  product  is  the  area. 

The  length  of  the  nrc  D  Q  E  equal  9}  feet,  and  the  radii  C  D,  C  E, 
equal  7  feet,  required  the  area. 

9-6X7  =  GG-5  -~  2  =  33-25  the  area. 


PROPORTION    OF    CIRCLES. 

Proportion  of  Circles. 

Fig-  2. 


To  enable  machinists  to  enlarge  or  reduce  machinery  wheels 
without  changing  their  respective  motion. 

First,  describe  two  circles  AB  and  C  D  the  size  of  the  largest 
wheels  which  you  wish  to  change  to  a  large  or  small  machine, 
with  the  centre  P  of  the  smaller  circle  C  D  on  the  circumference 
of  the  large  one  A  B ;  then  draw  two  lines  L  M  and  N  0  tangent  to 
the  circles  A  B  and  CD,  and  a  line  I  K  passing  through  their  cen- 
tres P  and  R;  then  if  you  wish  to  reduce  the  machine,  describe  a 
circle  the  size  you  wish  to  reduce  it  to;  if  one-half,  for  example, 
have  the  centre  Q  one-half  the  distance  from  R  to  S  and  describe 
the  circle  E  F,  and  on  its  circumference  T  as  a  centre,  describe  a 
circle  G  H,  allowing  their  circumferences  to  touch  the  tangent  lines 


TO    DESCRIBE    AN    ELLIPSE.  5 

L  M  and  N  0,  which  will  make  the  circle  E  F  one-half  the  size  of 
the  circle  A  B,  and  G  H  one-half  the  size  of  C  D ;  therefore  £  F  and 
G  II  are  in  the  same  proportion  to  each  other  as  AB  and  CD. 

If  you  wish  to  reduce  one-third,  have  the  centre  Q  one-third  the 
distance  from  R  to  S;  if  one-fourth,  have  the  centre  Q  one-fourth 
the  distance  from  R  to  S,  and  so  on.  This  calculation  mny  be  ap- 
plied beyond  the  centre  R  for  enlarging  machine  wheels,  which 
will  enable  you  to  make  the  alteration  without  changing  their  re- 
spective motion. 


To  describe  an  Ellipse,  or  Oval. 

[Simple  Method.] 

Fig.  3. 


At  a  given  distance,  equal  to  the  required  eccentricity  of  the 
ellipse,  place  two  pins,  A  and  B,  and  pass  a  string,  ACB,  round 
them  ;  keep  the  string  stretched  by  a  pencil  or  tracer,  C,  and  move 
the  pencil  along,  keeping  the  string  all  the  while  equally  tense, 
then  will  the  ellipse  C  G  L  F  H  be  described.  A  and  B  are  the  foci 
of  the  ellipse,  D  the  centre,  DA  or  DB  the  eccentricity,  EF  the 
principal  axis  or  longer  diameter,  G  H  the  shorter  diameter,  and 
if  from  any  point  L  in  the  curve  a  line  be  drawn  perpendicular  to 
the  axis,  then  will  L  K  be  an  ordinate  to  the  axis  corresponding  to 
the  point  L,  and  the  parts  of  the  axis  E  K,  K  F  into  which  LK  di- 
vides it  are  said  to  be  the  abscissae  corresponding  to  that  ordinate. 

NOTE.— OVAT..  A  curve  line,  the  two  diameters  of  which  are  of  unequal 
Icii-ih,  and  is  allied  in  form  to  the  ellipse.  An  ellipse  is  that  figure  which  is 
produced  by  cutting  a  cone  or  cylinder  in  a  direction  oblique  to  its  axis,  and 
p:i>"iii'_r  through  its  sides.  An  oval  may  be  formed  by  joining  different  segments 
ot'cirrlrs.  so  that  their  meeting  shall  not  be  perceived,  but  form  a  continuous 
curve  line.  All  elliiiscs  are  ovals,  hut  all  ovals  are  not  ellipses;  for  the  term 
oval  may  be  applied  to  all  afMhaped  figures,  those  which  are  broader  at  one 
end  than  the  other,  as  well  as  those  whose  ends  are  equally  curved. 


TO    DESCRIBE    AN    ELLIPSE, 

To  describe  an  Ellipse. 

Fig.  4. 


To  describe  an  ellipse  of  any  length  and  width,  and  by  it  to 
describe  a  pattern  for  the  sides  of  a  vessel  of  any  flare. 

First  draw  an  indefinite  line  DE  perpendicular  to  the  line  AB, 
and  from  C,  the  point  of  intersection,  as  a  centre,  describe  a  circle 
FG,  having  the  diameter  equal  to  the  length  of  the  ellipse  ;  from 
the  same  centre  C  describe  a  circle  H  J  equal  to  the  width  ;  then 


TO    DESCRIBE    AN    ELLIPSE.  7 

describe  the  end  circles  L  K'  and  L  K,  as  much  less  than  the  width 
as  the  width  is  less  than  the  length  ;  then  draw  the  lines  M  N  and 
M  N  tangent  to  the  circles  K'L,  II  J  and  K  L  ;  from  the  middle  of 
the  line  M  N  at  0  erect  a  perpendicular  produced  until  it  intersects 
the  indefinite  line  D  E ;  from  the  point  of  intersection  P  as  a  cen- 
tre, describe  the  arc  K/II  K,  and  with  the  same  sweep  of  the  divi- 
ders mark  the  point  R  on  the  line  D  £ ;  from  the  point  R  draw  the 
lines  RU  and  R  V  through  the  points  K'  and  K  where  the  arc  K' 
II  K  touches  the  end  circles  K'L  and  KL;  then  place  one  foot  of 
the  dividers  on  the  point  R  and  span  them  to  the  point  H,  and  de- 
scribe the  arc  Q'H  Q,  which  will  be  equal  in  length  to  the  arc  K' 
HK;  from  the  same  centre  R  describe  the  aro  U  W  V  the  width 
of  the  pattern ;  then  span  the  dividers  the  diameter  of  the  end 
circle  K  L ;  place  one  foot  of  the  dividers  on  the  line  R  V,  at  point 
Q,  and  the  other  at  Y  as  a  centre,  describe  the  arc  QT  the  length 
of  the  curve  line  K  0,  and  with  the  same  sweep  of  the  dividers  de- 
scribe the  arc  T'Q'  from  the  centre  Y'  on  the  line  R  U ;  then  span 
the  dividers  from  Y'  to  U,  and  from  Y'  as  a  centre,  describe  the 
arc  U  X,  and  from  Y  as  a  centre,  describe  the  arc  V  X,  which  com- 
pletes the  description  of  the  pattern. 

The  more  flare  you  wish  the  pattern  to  have,  the  nearer  the 
centre  point  R  must  be  to  H  ;  and  the  less  flare,  the  further  the 
centre  point  R  must  be  from  II ;  in  the  same  proportion  as  you 
move  the  centre  R  towards,  or  from  H,  you  must  move  the  centre  Y 
towards,  or  from  Q,  or  which  would  be  the  same  as  spanning  the 
dividers  lees,  or  greater,  than  the  diameter  of  the  end  circle  KL. 

To  find  the  Circumference  of  an  Ellipse. 

RULE.— Multiply  half  the  sum  of  the  two  diameters  by  3-1416, 
and  the  product  will  be  the  circumference. 

Example. —  Suppose  the  longer  diameter  6  inches  and  the  shorter 
diameter  4  inches,  then  6  added  to  4  equal  10,  divided  by  2  equal 
5,  multiplied  by  3-1416  equal  15-7080  inches  circumference. 


To  find  the  Area  of  an  Ellipse. 

RULE. —  Multiply  the  longer  diameter  by  the  shorter  diameter, 
and  by  -7854,  and  the  product  will  be  the  area. 

Example. —  Required  the  area  of  an  ellipse  whose  longer  diam- 
eter is  0  inches  and  shorter  diameter  4  inches. 

6  X  4  X  -7864  =  18-8496,  the  area. 


8      TO  DESCRIBE  A  BIGHT  ANGLED  ELBOW, 

To  describe  a  Right  Angled  Elbow. 
Fig.  5. 


First  construct  a  rectangle  A  DE  B  equal  in  width  to  the  diam- 
eter of  the  elbow,  and  (he  length  equal  to  the  circumference  :  then 
from  the  point  J,  the  middle  of  the  line  A  B,  draw  the  line  J  H,  and 
from  the  point  F,  the  middle  of  the  line  AD,  draw  the  line  FG; 
from  the  point  J  draw  two  diagonal  lines  J  D  and  JE:  then  .span 
the  dividers  so  as  to  divide  one  of  these  diagonal  lines  into  six 
equal  parts,  viz.,  J,  L,  0,  T,  0,  V,  E :  from  the  point  L  erect  a 
perpendicular,  produced  to  the  line  J  II ;  from  the  point  of  contact 
M,  as  a  centre,  describe  the  arc  N  J  0  for  the  top  of  the  elbow, 
and  from  the  points  M'  and  M'  as  centres,  with  the  same  sweep 
of  the  dividers,  describe  the  arcs  NO  and  NO;  then  draw  nn  in- 
definite straight  line  PQ  tangent  to  the  arcs  NO  and  N  J.  having 
the  points  of  contact  at  S  and  S ;  on  this  tangent  line  erect  a  per- 
pendicular passing  through  the  point  N  produced  until  it  inter- 
sects the  line  BE  produced;  then  place  one  foot  of  the  dividers 
on  the  point  of  intersection  R  and  span  them  over  the  dotted  line 
to  the  point  T,  and  with  the  dividers  thus  spanned  describe  the 
arcs  TS,  TS,  TS,  and  TS;  these  arcs  and  the  arcs  N  0,  NJO, 
and  0  N  will  be  the  right  angled  elbow  required. 


TO    DESCRIBE   A   STBAIGHT    ELBOW.         9 

To  describe  a  Straight  Elbow. 

[Old  Method,] 

Fig.  6, 


1 

.--- 

'' 

* 

j 

S 

7 

/ 

.1 

5 

i 

c 

<i 

\ 

c 

J 

7 

i 

« 

x 

( 

• 

1 

P 

•/ 

J 

- 

1 

7 

X 

- 

s 

7 

Mark  oat  the  length  and  depth  of  the  elbow,  A  B  C  D  ;  draw  a 
semicircle  at  each  end,  as  from  A  B  and  C  D ;  divide  each  semi- 
circle into  eight  parts ;  draw  horizontal  lines  as  shown  from  1  to 
1,  2  to  2,  etc.;  divide  the  circumference  or  length,  ACBD,  into 
sixteen  equal  parts,  and  draw  perpendicular  lines  as  in  figure ; 
draw  a  line  from  a  to  6  and  from  6  to  e,  and  on  the  opposite  side 
from  d  to  «  and  t  to/;  for  the  top  sweep  set  the  dividers  on  fourth 
line  from  top  and  sweep  two  of  the  spaces ;  the  same  at  the  corner ; 
on  space  for  the  remaining  sweeps  set  the  dividers  so  to  intersect 
in  the  three  corners  of  the  spaces  marked  X-  The  teams  must 
be  added  to  drawing. 


To  describe  a  Carved  Elbow. 
Fig,  7. 


10         TO    DESCRIBE    A    CURVED    ELBOW, 
Fig,  8, 


Describe  two  circles  UX  and  V'S,  the  curves  desired  for  the 
elbow,  having  the  distance  from  U  to  V  equal  to  the  diameter; 
then  divide  the  circle  \T/,  W,  R  and  S,  into  as  many  sections  as 
desired;  then  construct  a  rectangle,  Fig.  8,  ADEB,  the  width 
equal  to  the  width  of  one  section  V'W,  Fig,  7,  and  the  length  equal 
to  the  circumference  of  the  elbow:  then  span  the  dividers  from 
the  point  R  to  the  point  P  at  tho  dotted  line,  Fig.  7,  and  with  the 
dividers  thus  spanned  mark  the  points  F  F'  Fig.  8,  from  points  A 
and  D,  and  draw  the  lines  FG  and  F'G' ;  frqm  point  I  draw  the 
two  diagonal  lines  I  F  and  IG,  span  the  dividers  so  as  to  divide 
one  of  these  diagonal  lines  into  six  equal  parts,  viz.,  I,  L,  0,  T,  0, 
V,  G ;  from  the  point  L  erect  a  perpendicular  line  produced  until  it 
intersects  the  line  I  H  produced  ;  from  the  point  of  intersection  M, 
as  a  centre,  describe  the  arc  N  10  for  the  tap  of  the  elbow;  with 
the  same  sweep  of  the  dividers  describe  the  arcs  N  0  and  N  0 ;  then 
draw  an  indefinite  straight  line  P  Q  tangent  to  the  arcs  N  0  and 
N  I,  having  the  points  of  contact  at  S  and  S;  on  this  tangent  line 
erect  a  perpendicular  line  passing  through  the  point  N  (same  as 
in  Fig.  5),  produced  until  it  intersects  the  line  B  E  produced;  then 
place  one  foot  of  the  dividers  on  the  point  of  intersection  and  span 
them  over  the  dotted  line  to  the  point  T,  (same  as  in  Fig.  5),  and 
with  the  dividers  spanned  describe  the  arcs  T  S,  T  S,  T  S,  and  T 


TO    DESCRIBE    A    STRAIGHT    ELBOW.       11 

8;  these  arcs  and  the  arcs  N  0,  N  1 0  and  0  N,  will  be  one  side  of 
the  section,  and  by  the  same  rule  the  other  side  of  the  section  may 
be  described  at  the  same  time,  which  will  be  a  pattern  to  cut  the 
other  sections  by. 


To  describe  a  Straight  Elbow. 

[Another  Method  for  describing  a  Straight  Elbow.] 

Figs.  9  and  10. 


Fig.  10. 
f 

Fig.  9. 

< 

/ 

\ 

I 

•j 

r 

^ 

' 

t 

s 

s 

j 
\ 

^ 

N', 

a 

iff 

PIG.  9.— Draw  a  profile  of  half  of  the  elbow  wanted,  and  mark  a 
semicircle  on  the  line  representing  the  diameter,  divide  the  semi- 
circle into  six  equal  parts,  draw  perpendicular  lines  from  each 
division  on  the  circle  to  the  angle  line  as  on  figure. 

Fin.  10. — Draw  the  circumference  and  depth  of  elbow  wanted, 
and  divide  into  twelve  equal  parts ;  mark  the  height  of  perpendic- 
ular lines  of  Fig.  9  on  Fig.  10  a  b  e,  etc.  ;  act  your  dividers  the 
same  as  for  the  semicircle  and  sweep  from  e  to  e  intersecting  with 
/  and  the  same  from  a  to  the  comer,  then  set  the  dividers  one- 
third  the  circumference  and  sweep  from  e  to  d  each  tide,  and  from 
a  to  b  each  tide  at  bottom  ;  then  set  your  dividers  three-fourths  of 
the  circumference  and  sweep  from  c  to  d  each  tide  on  top,  and  from 
e  to  b  at  bottom,  and  you  obtain  a  more  correct  pattern  than  is 
generally  used.  Allow  for  the  lap  or  seam  outside  of  your  draw- 
ing, and  lay  out  the  elbow  deep  enough  to  put  together  by  swedge 
or  machine.  Be  careful  in  dividing  and  marking  out,  and  the 
large  end  will  be  true  without  trimming.  The  seams  must  be 
added  to  drawing. 


12  TO    DESCRIBE    BEVEL    COVERS. 

To  describe  Bevel  Covers  for  Vessels,  or  Breasts 
for  Cans. 

Fig.  11, 


From  0  as  a  centre,  describe  a  circle  D  E  larger  than  the  vessel ; 
and  from  C  as  a  centre,  describe  a  circle  A  B  the  size  of  the  ves- 
sel, then  with  the  dividers  the  same  as  you  described  the  circle  the 
size  of  the  vessel,  apply  them  six  times  on  the  circumference  of 
the  circle  larger  than  the  vessel ;  for  can-breasts  describe  the  cir- 
cle FQ  the  size  you  wish  for  the  opening  of  the  breast. 


To  describe  Pitched  Covers  for  Fails,  eto. 
Fig.  12. 


To  cut  for  pitched  covers,  draw  a  circle  one  inch  larger  than 
the  hoop  is  in  diameter  after  burring,  then  draw  a  line  from  the 


OVAL    BOILER    COVER. 


13 


centre  to  the  circumference  as  in  the  figure,  and  one  inch  from 
the  centre  and  connecting  with  this  line  draw  two  more  lines,  the 
ends  of  which  shall  be  one  inch  on  either  side  of  the  line  first 
drawn,  and  then  cut  out  the  piece. 


To  describe  an  Oval  Boiler  Cover. 


From  C  as  a  centre,  describe  a  circle  whose  diameter  will  be 
equal  to  the  width  of  the  boiler  outside  of  the  wire,  and  draw  the 
line  A  B  perpendicular  to  the  line  E  F,  having  it  pass  through  the 
point  D,  which  is  one-half  of  the  length  of  the  boiler ;  then  mark 
the  point  J  one  quarter  of  an  inch  or  more  as  you  wish,  for  the 
pitch  of  the  cover,  and  apply  the  corner  of  the  square  on  the  line 
AB,  allowing  the  blado  to  fall  on  the  circle  at  H,  and  the  tongue 
at  the  point  J ;  then  draw  the  lines  H  B,  B  J,  G  A  and  A  J,  which 
completes  the  description. 


14      TO    DESCRIBE    A    LIP    TO    A    MEASURE. 
To  describe  a  Lip  to  a  Measure, 

Fig.  14. 


Let  the  circle  A  B  represent  the  size  of  the  measure  ;  span  the 
dividers  fromK  to  F  three-quarters  of  the  diameter;  describe  the 
semicircle  D  K  E  ;  move  the  dividers  to  G  the  width  of  the  lip  re- 
quired, and  describe  the  semicircle  K  P  J,  which  will  be  the  lip 
Bought. 


The  Circle  and  its  Sections. 

1.  The  Areat  of  Circles  are  to  each  other  as  the  squares  of  their 
diameters;  any  circle  twice  the  diameter  of  another  contains  four 
times  the  area  of  the  other. 

2.  The  Radius  of  a  circle  is  a  straight  line  drawn  from  the  cen- 
tre to  the  circumference. 

3.  The  Diameter  of  a  circle  is  a  straight  line  drawn  through  the 
centre,  and  terminated  both  ways  at  the  circumference. 

4.  A  Chord  is  a  straight  line  joining  any  two  points  of  the  cir- 
cumference. 

6.  An  Arc  is  any  part  of  the  circumference. 

6.  A  Semicircle  is  half  the  circumference  cut  off  by  a  diameter. 

7.  A  Segment  is  any  portion  of  a  circle  cut  off  by  a  chord. 

8.  A  Sector  is  a  part  of  a  circle  cut  off  by  two  radii. 


FLARING    VESSEL.  15 

To  describe  a  Flaring  Vessel  Pattern,  a  Set  of  Patterns 
for  a  Pyramid  Cake,  or  an  Envelope  for  a  Cone. 

Fig.  15. 


From  a  point  C  as  a  centre,  describe  a  circle  A  B  equal  to  the 
large  circumference ;  with  the  point  F  as  a  centre,  the  depth  of 
the  vessel,  describe  a  circle  DE  equal  to  the  small  circumference  ; 
then  draw  the  lines  GH  and  RS  tangent  to  the  circles  AB  and 
D  E ;  from  the  point  of  intersection  0  as  a  centre,  describe  the 
arcs  A  C  B  and  D  F  E  ;  then  A  D  E  B  will  be  the  size  of  the  vessel, 
and  three  such  pieces  will  be  an  envelope  for  it,  and  A  J  B  T  F  U 
the  altitude:  then  by  dividing  the  sector  S  0  H  into  sections  A  B, 
D  E,  P  Q,  and  W  X,  you  will  have  a  set  of  patterns  for  a  pyramid 
2 


16      TO    DESCRIBE    A    COXE    OR    FRUSTUM. 

cake ;  and  the  sector  A  0  B  will  bo  one-third  of  an  envelope  for 
a  cone. 

In  allowing  for  locks,  you  must  draw  the  lines  parallel  to  the 
radii,  as  represented  in  the  diagram  by  dotted  lines,  which  will 
bring  the  vessel  true  across  the  top  and  bottom. 


To  describe  a  Cone  or  Frustum. 


First  draw  a  side  elevation  of  the  desired  vessel,  D  E,  then  from 
A  as  a  centre  describe  the  arcs  CDC  and  G  E  G  ;  after  finding  the 
diameter  of  the  top  or  large  end,  turn  to  the  table  of  Diameters 
and  Circumferences,  where  you  will  find  the  true  circumference, 
which  you  will  proceed  to  lay  out  on  the  upper  or  larger  arc  CDC, 
making  due  allowance  for  the  locks,  wire,  and  burr.  This  is  for 
one  piece;  if  for  two  pieces,  you  will  lay  out  only  one-half  the 
circumference  on  the  plate  ;  if  for  three  pieces,  one-third  :  if  for 
four  pieces,  one-fourth  ;  and  so  on  for  any  number,  remembering 
to  make  the  allowance  for  locks,  wire,  and  burr  on  the  piece  you 
use  for  a  pattern. 


TO    DESCRIBE    A    HEART  —  CYCLOID.       17 
To  describe  a  Heart. 
Fig.  17, 


Draw  an  indefinite  line  A  B;  then  span  the  dividers  one-fourth 
the  width  you  wish  the  heart,  and  describe  two  semicircumferences 
A  C  and  C  B ;  span  the  dividers  from  A  to  B,  the  width  of  the  heart, 
and  describe  the  lines  A  D  and  B  D,  which  completes  the  description. 


Cycloid. 


Cycloid,  a  curve  much  used  in  mechanics.     It  is  thus  formed  : 
If  the  circumference  of  a  circle  be  rolled  on  a  right  line,  begin- 
ning at  any  point  A,  and  continued  till  the  same  point  A  arrives  at 
the  line  again,  making  just  one  revolution,  and  thereby  measuring 


18      TO  STRIKE  SIDE  OF  FLARING  VESSJfL. 

out  a  straight  line  ABA  equal  to  the  circumference  of  a  circle, 
while  the  point  A  in  the  circumference  traces  out  a  curve  line 
A  C  A  G  A:  then  this  curve  is  called  a  cycloid;  and  some  of  its 
properties  are  contained  in  the  following  lemma. 

If  the  generating  or  revolving  circle  be  placed  in  the  middle  of 
the  cycloid,  its  diameter  coinciding  with  the  axis  A  B,  and  from 
any  point  there  be  drawn  the  tangent  C  F,  the  ordinate  C  D  E  per- 
pendicular to  the  axis,  and  the  chord  of  the  circle  A  D ;  then  the 
chief  properties  are  these : 

The  right  line  C  D  equal  to  the  circular  arc  A  D ; 

The  cycloidal  arc  A  C  equal  to  double  the  chord  A  D ; 

The  semi-cycloid  AC  A  equal  to  double  the  diameter  A  B,  and 

The  tangent  C  F  is  parallel  to  the  chord  A  D. 
This  curve  is  the  line  of  swiftest  descent,  and  that  best  suited 
for  the  path  of  the  ball  of  a  pendulum. 


To  Strike  the  Side  of  a  Flaring  Vessel. 

Fig.  19. 


12 


To  find  the  radius  of  a  circle  for  striking  the  side  of  a  flaring 
vessel  having  the  diameters  and  depth  of  side  given. 

RULE.  —  As  the  difference  between  the  large  and  small  diameter 
is  to  the  depth  of  the  side,  so  is  the  small  diameter  to  the  radius 
of  the  circle  by  which  it  is  struck. 

Example.  —  Suppose  A  B  C  D  to  be  the  desired  vessel,  with  a  top 
diameter  of  12  inches,  bottom  diameter  9  inches,  depth  of  side  8 
inches.     Then  as  12  —  9  =  3  :  8  :  :  9  to  the  radius. 
72-r3  =  24  inches,  answer. 


TO    DESCRIBE    BREASTS    FOR    CANS.        19 

To  describe  Bevel  Covers  for  Vessels,  or  Breasts  for 
Cans. 

Fig.  20. 


Construct  a  right  angle  A  D  B,  and  from  the  point  C,  the  altitude 
height  you  wish  the  breast,  erect  a  perpendicular  line  F;  then  on 
the  line  B,  mark  the  point  £  one-half  the  diameter  of  the  can; 
and  on  the  line  F,  mark  the  point  G  one-half  the  diameter  of  the 
opening  in  the  top  of  breast:  draw  a  line  N  to  pass  through  the 
points  E  and  G  produced  until  it  intersects  the  line  A ;  place  one 
foot  of  the  dividers  at  the  point  of  intersection  H,  and  place  the 
other  on  the  point  E,  and  describe  the  circle  E  I  K ;  span  the  divi- 
ders from  the  point  H  to  point  G,  and  describe  the  circle  G  L  M  ; 
then  span  the  dividers  from  the  point  D  to  E,  and  step  them  six 
times  on  the  circle  E  I  K,  which  gives  the  size  of  the  breast.  Re- 
member to  mark  the  lines  for  the  locks  parallel  with  the  radii. 


20      TO    FIND    THE    CENTRE    OF    A    CIRCLE. 

To  Find  the  Centre  of  a  Circle  from  a  Part  of  the  Cir- 
cumference. 

Fig.  21. 


Span  the  dividers  any  distance  you  wish,  and  place  one  foot  on 
the  circumference  A  B,  and  describe  the  semicircumferences  C  D, 
E  F,  Q  H,  and  I  K,  and  through  the  points  of  their  intersection  P  Q 
and  R  S,  draw  two  indefinite  lines  L  M  and  N  0 ;  the  point  of  their 
intersection  T,  will  be  the  centre  desired. 


THE    FRUSTUM    OP    A    CONE. 

Sector,  for  Obtaining  Angles. 
Fig.  22. 


21 


SECTOR,  a  portion  of  a  circle  comprehended  between  any  two 
radii  and  their  intercepted  arcs.  —  Similar  Sector*  are  those  whose 
radii  include  equal  angles. 

To  find  the  area  of  a  sector.  Say  as  360°  is  to  the  degree,  etc., 
in  the  arc  of  the  sector,  so  is  the  area  of  the  whole  circle  to  the 
area  of  the  sector.  Or  multiply  the  radius  by  the  length  of  the 
arc,  and  half  the  product  will  be  the  area. 


To  Construct  the  Frustum  of  a  Cone. 

Form  of  flat  Plate  by  which  to  cotutruct  any  Fruttum  of  a  Cone. 

Fig.  23. 


Let  A  B  C  D  represent  the  required  frustum  ;  continue  the  lines 
A  D  and  B  C  until  they  meet  at  E ;  then  from  E  as  centre,  with  the 
radius  E  C,  describe  the  arc  C  H;  also  from  E,  with  the  radius  E  B, 
describe  the  arc  B  I ;  make  B  I  equal  in  length  to  twice  A  O  B ; 
draw  the  line  E  I,  and  B  C  I  H  is  the  form  of  the  plate  as  required. 


22 


STRIKING    OUT    A    CONE. 

Rule  for  Striking  out  a  Cone  or  Frustum. 
Fig.  24. 
C 


In  a  conical  surface,  there  may  be  economy,  sometimes,  in 
having  the  slant  height  6  times  the  radius  of  base.  For  a  Circle 
may  be  wholly  cut  into  conical  surfaces,  if  the  angle  is  60°,  30°, 
16°,  etc. 

But  there  is  a  greater  simplicity  in  cutting  it,  when  the  angle 
is  60°.  For  instance,  take  A  C  equal  to  the  slant  height,  describe 
an  indefinite  arc  AO;  with  the  same  opening  of  the  dividers 
measure  from  A  to  B ;  draw  B  C  and  we  have  the  required  sector. 
This  would  make  the  angle  C  equal  60°.  This  angle  may  be 
divided  into  two  or  four  equal  parts,  and  we  should  thus  have 
sectors  whose  angle  would  be  30°  or  15°,  which  would  not  make 
the  vessel  very  flaring.  The  accompanying  figure  gives  about  the 
shape  of  the  flaring  vessel  when  the  angle  of  the  sector  is  30°. 

Fig.  25, 


To  find  the  Contents  of  a  Pyramid  or  Cone. 

RULE. —  Multiply  the  area  of  the  base  by  the  height,  and  one- 
third  of  the  product  will  be  the  solid  content. 

Example. —  Required  the  solid  content  in  inches  of  a  Cone  or 
Pyramid,  the  diameter  of  the  base  being  8  inches,  and  perpendic- 
ular height  18  inches? 
8  X  8  =  W  X  -78&t  X  18=.904'7808  -=-  3=  301'593G  .inches  -r  231  =  1  gall  1^  qta. 


CONTENTS    OF  FBUSTUM    OF    A.    CONE.        23 

Hipped  Roofs,  Mill  Hoppers,  etc. 

To  find  the  various  Angle*  and  proper  Dimensions  of  Material*  whereby 
to  construct  any  figure  whose  form  it  the  Frustum  of  a  proper  or 
inverted  Pyramid,  a*  Hipped  Roof*,  Mill  Hopper*,  etc. 

Fig.  26, 

O 


Let  A  B  C  D  be  the  given  dimensions  of  plan  for  a  roof,  the 
height  R  T  also  being  given  ;  draw  the  diagonal  A  R,  meeting  the 
top  or  ridge  K*  on  plan;  from  R,  at  right  angles  with  AR  and 
equal  to  the  required  height,  draw  the  line  R  T,  then  T  A,  equal 
the  length  of  the  struts  or  corners  of  the  roof;  from  A,  with  the 
distance  A  T,  describe  an  arc  T  /,  continue  the  diagonal  A  R  until 
it  cuts  the  arc  T/,  through  which,  and  parallel  with  the  ridge  R«, 
draw  the  line  m  n,  which  determines  the  required  breadth  for  each 
side  of  the  roof:  from  A,  meeting  the  line  m  n,  draw  the  line  A  o, 
or  proper  angle  for  the  end  of  each  board  by  which  the  roof  might 
require  to  be  covered ;  and  the  angle  at  T  is  what  the  boards  re- 
quire to  be  made  in  the  direction  of  their  thickness,  when  the  cor- 
ners or  angles  require  to  be  mitred. 


Contents  in  Gallons  of  the  Frustum  of  a  Cone. 
Figs.  27,  28,  29. 


To  find  the  Contents  in  Gallons  of  a  Vessel,  whose  diameter  is 
larger  at  one  end  than  the  other,  such  as  a  Bowl,  Pail,  Firkin, 
Tub,  Coffee-pot,  etc. 


24  CONTENTS    OF    SQUARE    VESSELS. 

RULE. —  Multiply  the  larger  diameter  by  the  smaller,  and  to  the 
product  add  one-third  of  the  square  of  their  difference,  multiply 
by  the  height,  and  multiply  that  product  by  -0034  for  Wine  Gallons, 
and  by  -002785  for  Beer. 

Example.  — Required  the  contents  of  a  Coffee-pot  6  inches  diam- 
eter at  the  top,  9  inches  at  the  bottom,  and  18  inches  high. 

Large  diameter  9  Brought  up     1026 

Small      do.         6  -0034 

54  4104 

J  of  the  square  3  3078 

57  3-4884  wine  gallons, 

Height    18  or  nearly  3$  gallons. 

456 
57 

Carried  up    1026 

1026  multiplied  by  -002785  equal  2-8574  Beer  Gallon*. 


Rule  to  find  the  Contents  in  Gallons  of  any  Square 
Vessel. 

RULE. —  Take  the  dimensions  in  inches  and  decimal  parts  of  an 
inch,  multiply  the  length,  breadth,  and  height  together,  and  then 
multiply  the  product  by  -004329  for  Wine  Gallons,  and  by  -003546 
for  Ale  Gallons. 

Example. —  How  many  Wine  Gallons  will  a  box  contain  that  is 
10  feet  long,  5  feet  wide,  and  4  feet  deep  T 


Length  in  inches, 
Breadth  in     do. 

Height  in  inches, 

120 
60 

Brought  up  345600 
•004329 

7200 
48 

67600 
28800 

3110400 
691200 
1036800 
1382400 

UfttVKVMOO  ! 

Carried  up,  345600 

or  1496  galls,  and  3J  gills. 


CONTENTS    OF    CYLINDRICAL    VESSELS.      25 

Contents  in  Gallons  of  Cylindrical  Vessels. 

RULE. —  Take  the  dimensions,  in  inches  and  decimal  parts  of  an 
inch.  Square  the  diameter,  multiply  it  by  the  length  in  inches, 
and  then  multiply  the  product  by  -0034  for  Wine  Gallons,  or  by 
•002785  for  Ale  Gallons. 

Example.—  How  many  U.  8.  Gallons  will  a  Cylindrical  Vessel 
contain,  whose  diameter  is  <J  inches,  and  length  9}  inches? 
Diameter,  9  Brought  up     769-6 

9  -0034 


Square  Diam.   81 
Length,  9*5 

~405 
729 


30780 
23085 

2-61680 
or  2  gallons  and  5  pints. 


Carried  up,  769-5 


To  Ascertain  the  'Weights  of  Pipes  of  various  Metals, 
and  any  Diameter  required. 


Thickness  in 
parts  of  an 
ini-h. 

Wrought  iron. 

Copper. 

LMd. 

A 

•826 
•653 

in 

28$ 

Ibs.  plate    -38 
•76 

S 
4 

Ibs.  lead    -483 
•967 

A 

•976 

86 

1-14 

;< 

\      «<        1-46 

t 

1-8 

1-627 

46J 
68 

1-62 
1.9 

8 
1 

1-933 
[      "        2-417 

I 

1-95 
2-277 
2-6 

70 
80J 
93 

2-28 
"         2-66 
«•         8-04 

n 
It 
1ft 

2-9 
8-883 
8.867 

RVI.F..—  To  the  interior  diameter  of  the  pipe,  in  inches,  add  the 
thickness  of  the  metal ;  multiply  the  sum  by  the  decimal  numbers 
opposite  the  required  thickness  and  under  the  metal's  name;  also 
by  the  length  of  the  pipe  in  feet,  and  the  product  is  the  weight  of 
the  pipe  in  Ibs. 

1.  Required  the  weight  of  a  copper  pipe  whose  interior  diam- 
eter is  7  j  inches,  its  length  6}  feet,  and  the  metal  \  of  an  inch  in 
thickness. 

7-5  X  '125  =  7-625  X  1'52  X  6'25  =  72-4  Ibs. 

'2.  What  is  the  weight  of  a  leaden  pipe  18}  feet  in  length,  3 
inches  interior  diameter,  and  the  metal  }  of  an  inch  in  thickness? 
8  +  -26  =  8-25  X  3-867  X  18-5  =  232-5  Ibo. 


26 


TIN    PLATES. 


Tin  Plates. 


Size,  Length,  Breadth,  and  Weight. 


BRAND  MARK. 

No.  of 
ShecU 
in  Box. 

Length  and 
Breadth. 

Weight  per 
Box. 

Inches. 

Cwt.qr.lbs. 

C 

225 

14  by  10 

1     0     0 

x 

225 

14  by  10 

1      1     0 

XX 

xxx 

xxxx 

225 
225 
225 

14  by  10 
14  by  10 
14  by  10 

1     1   21 
1     2  14 
1     3     7 

Each  1  x  advances 
$1.75  to  $2.00. 

1  xxxxx 

225 

14  by  10 

200 

1  xxxxxx 

225 

14  by  10 

2    0  21 

J 

DC 
Dx 

100 
100 

17  by  12J 
17  by  12 

0    3  14 
1     0  14 

8  g  g| 

Dxx 

100 

17  by  12 

117 

*£•«! 

D  xxx 

100 

17  by  12 

1     2    0 

o   Jr  .^  *;? 

D  xxxx 

100 

17  by  12 

1     2  21 

•s"p<  *  « 

D  xxxxx 

100 

17  by  12 

1     3  14 

'£  "3  g  a 

D  xxxxxx 

100 

17  by  12 

207 

f  jUn 

8  DC 

200 

16  by  11 

1     1  27 

g  "a"* 

8  D  x 

200 

16  by  11 

1     2  20 

60  0   «   £ 

8  Dxx 

200 

15  by  11 

1     3  13 

*         bcjj 

8  D  xxx 
8  D  xxxx 

200 
200 

15  by  11 
15  by  11 

206 
2    0  27 

Illll 

8  D  xxxxx 

200 

15  by  11 

2     1  20 

IS  a.0  -  • 

8  D  xxxxxx 

200 

15  by  11 

2     2  13 

Is  .6  ^  §  3 

about 

•a  .  g  1  1 

TTT  Taggers, 

225 

14  by  10 

1     0    0 

ali.1 

1C 

225 

12  by  12 

1  x 

225 

12  by  12 

1  XX 

225 

12  by  12 

Ixxx 

225 

12  by  12 

1       About  the  same 

1  xxxx 

225 

12  by  12 

weight  per  Box,  as 

}•  the    plates   above 

1C 

112 

14  by  20 

1   of  similar  brand, 

Ix 

112 

14  by  20 

J   14  by  10. 

Ixx 

112 

14  by  20 

1  xxx 

112 

14  by  20 

1  xxxx 

112 

14  by  20 

Leaded  or  \  1  C 
Ternea  /  1  x 

112 
112 

14  by  20 
14  by  20 

100 
110 

|      For  Roofing. 

WEIGHT    OF    WATER. 


27 


Oil  Canisters,  (from 2% to  125  gall*.,)  with  the  Quantity  and 
Quality  of  Tin  Required  for  Custom  Work. 


Galls. 

Quantity  and  Quality. 

Galls. 

Quantity  and  Quality. 

10 
16 

2    Plates,  I  X  in  body. 
2             SDX      " 
2                DX      » 
4                IX       " 
8J              DX      " 
4                DX      « 

83 

45 
60 
90 
125 

13J  Plates,  IX  in  body,  3 
breadths  high. 
13  J  Plates,  SDXinbody. 
13$      »        DX     •• 
15J      "        D  X     "  * 
20        "        DX     " 

The  bottom  tier  of  plates  to  be  placed  lengthwise. 


pounds, 
pounds. 

7-50        U.  8.  gallon!. 
112-00        pounds. 


Weight  of  Water. 

cubic  inch is  equal  to          '03617  pounds 

cubic  inches  .•  is  equal  to          -434 

cubic  foot is  equal  to      62-5 

cubic  foot is  equal  to 

cubic  feet is  equal  to 

cubic  feet is  equal  to  2240-00        pound 

Cylindrical  inch is  equal  to          -02842  pounds. 

Cylindrical  inches...  is  equal  to          -341 

Cylindrical  foot is  equal  to 

Cylindrical  foot is  equal  to 

2-282  Cylindrical  feet is  equal  to    112-00 

45-64    Cylindrical  feet is  equal  to  2240-00 

Imperial  gallons.....  is  equal  to  112-00 
Imperial  gallons. ....  is  equal  to  2240-00 
United  States  galls,  is  equal  to  112-00 
United  States  galls,  is  equal  (o  2240-00 


1 
12 

1 

1 

1-8 
85-84 

1 
12 

1 

1 


114 

224 
13-44 

268-8 


49-10 


pounds. 

Bounds. 
.  S.  gallons, 
pounds, 
pounds, 
pounds, 
pounds, 
pounds, 
pounds. 


Centre  of  pressure  is  at  two-thirds  depth  from  surface. 


Decimal  Equivalents  to  the  Fractional  Parts  of  a  Gallon, 
or  an  Inch. 

[The  Inch,  or  Gallon,  bring  divided  into  82  parlt.] 
[In  multiplying  decimals  it  is  usual  to  drop  all  but  the  first  two  or  three  figure*.] 


•03125 

•06'_'5 

•09375 

UB 

•15625 

•1875 

•21875 

•25 

•28125 

•3125 

•34375 


28  DIAMETERS,   ETC.,   OF    CIRCLES. 

APPLICATION.  —  Required  the  gallons  in  any  Cylindrical  Vessel. 
Suppose  a  vessel  9£  inches  deep,  9  inches  diameter,  and  con- 
tents 2-61G3,  that  is,  2  gallons  and  61  hundredth  parts  of  a  gallon ; 
now  to  ascertain  this  decimal  of  a  gallon,  refer  to  the  above  Table 
for  the  decimal  that  is  nearest,  which  is  -625,  opposite  to  which  is 
|ths  of  a  gallon,  or  20  gills,  or  6  pints,  or  2J  quarts,  consequently 
the  vessel  contains  2  gallons  and  5  pints. 

INCHES.  —  To  find  what  part  of  an  inch  the  decimal  -708  is. 
Refer  to  the  above  Table  for  the  decimal  that  is  nearest,  which  is 
•71875,  opposite  to  which  is  23-32,  or  nearly  Jths  of  an  inch. 


A  TABLE  CONTAINING  THE  DIAMETERS,  CIRCUM- 
FERENCES, AND  AREAS  OF  CIRCLES,  AND 
THE  CONTENT  OF  EACH  IN  GALLONS 
AT  ONE  FOOT  IN  DEPTR 


UTILITY  OF  THE  TABLE. 


EXAMPLES. 

1.  Required  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  the  dianseter  being 
five  inches  T 

In  the  column  of  circumferences,  opposite  the  given  diameter, 
stands  15-708*  inches,  the  circumference  required. 

2.  Required  the  capacity,  in  gallons,  of  a  can,  the  diameter 
being  6  feet  and  depth  10  feet? 

In  the  fourth  column  from  the  given  diameter  stands  211-4472,* 
being  the  content  of  a  can  6  feet  in  diameter  and  1  foot  in  depth, 
which  being  multiplied  by  10  gives  the  required  content,  two 
thousand  one  hundred  fourteen  and  a  half  gallons. 

3.  Any  of  the  areas  in  feet  multiplied  by  -03704,  the  product 
equal  the  number  of  cubic  yards  at  1  foot  in  depth. 

4.  The  area  of  a  circle  in  inches  multiplied  by  the  length  or 
thickness  in  inches,  and  by  -263,  the  product  equal  the  weight  in 
pounds  of  cast  iron. 

*  See  preceding  page  for  Decimal  Equivalents  to  the  Fractional  parts  of  a 
Gallon  and  an  Inch. 


DIAMETERS,   ETC.,   OF    CIRCLES. 


29 


Diameters  and  Circumferences  of  Circles,  and  the  Con- 
tent in  Gallons  at  1  Foot  in  Depth. 
[Area  in  Inches.} 


Dfcm. 

Cire.  in. 

Area  in. 

Gallons. 

Diam. 

Cire.  in. 

Area  in. 

Gallon*. 

1  in. 

8-1416 

•7854 

•04084 

61 

20-420 

83-183 

1-72652 

8-6343 

•X<!" 

•06169 

1 

20-813 

34-471 

1-79249 

8-9270 

1-2271 

•OCS80 

I 

21-205 

85-784 

1-86077 

4-3197 

1-4848 

•07717 

I 

21-698 

87-122 

1-93084 

4-7124 

1-7671 

•09188 

7  in. 

21-991 

88-484 

2-00117 

6-1051 

2-0739 

•10784 

22-883 

89-871 

2-07329 

6-4978 

2-4052 

•12606 

22-776 

41-282 

2-14666 

6-8905 

2-7611 

•14367 

23.169 

42-718 

2-22134 

2 

i. 

6-2832 

8-1416 

•16833 

23-662 

44-178 

149726 

6-6769 

8-5465 

•18439 

23-954 

46-663 

2-87448 

7-0686 

1*9761 

•20675 

24-347 

47-173 

2-46299 

7-4618 

4-4302 

•23036 

24-740 

48-707 

2-68276 

7-8540 

4-9087 

•25522 

1 

n. 

25-132 

60-2C6 

2-61378 

8-2467 

6-4119 

•28142 

25-615 

61-848 

2-69G09 

8-6394 

6-9395 

•30883 

25-918 

.-.::•  I.V, 

2-77971 

9-0321 

6-4918 

•83763 

26-810 

66-088 

2-86468 

1 

i. 

9-4248 

7-0686 

•86754 

26-708 

66-746 

2-95074 

9-8176 

7-6699 

•89879 

27-096 

68-4S6 

8-03816 

10-210 

8-2967 

•43134 

27-489 

90-189 

8-12686 

10-602 

S-'.'l'.J 

•46619 

27-881 

81*881 

8-21682 

10-995 

9-6211 

•60029 

r» 

u. 

28-274 

68-611 

640808 

11-888 

10-320 

•63664 

28-667 

66-896 

8-40059 

11-781 

11-044 

•67429 

29-05'J 

67-200 

8-49440 

12-178 

11-793 

•61324 

29-452 

89-029 

8-68961 

4 

n. 

12-666 

12-666 

•65343 

29-846 

70-869 

648686 

12-969 

13-364 

49499 

80-237 

72-769 

8-78347 

13-351 

14-186 

•73767 

80-630 

74-662 

8*88243 

13-744 

15-033 

•78172 

81-023 

78-688 

8-98258 

14-137 

15-904 

•82701 

10  in. 

31-416 

78-540 

4-08408 

14-629 

If,    >()(! 

•87360 

i 

81-808 

80-515 

4-18678 

14-922 

17-720 

•92144 

82-201 

82-616 

449068 

15-315 

18-665 

•97058 

32-594 

84-6-10 

4-89608 

6  in. 

16-708 

19-635 

1-02102 

32-986 

66-490 

4-60268 

1 

16-100 

20-G29 

1.07271 

83-379 

88664 

4-61053 

16-493 

21-647 

1-12564 

33-772 

90-762 

4-71962 

16-886 

22-690 

1  -17988 

34-164 

92-885 

4-82846 

17-278 

23-758 

1-23542 

11 

n. 

84-557 

95-033 

4-94172 

17-671 

24-850 

1-29220 

84-950 

97-205 

6-05466 

18-064 

26-967 

1-85028 

35-343 

99-402 

5-16890 

18-467 

27-108 

1-40962 

85-736 

101-623 

6*28489 

6  in. 

18-849 

28-274 

1-47025 

36-128 

103-869 

6-40119 

19-242 

Ll'.M'.l 

1-53213 

86.521 

106-139 

6-61923 

19-635 

30-679 

1-59531 

86-913 

108-434 

6-63857 

20-027 

81-919 

1-65979 

37-300 

110-753 

5-75916 

30 


DIAMETERS,   ETC.,   OP    CIRCLES. 


Diameters  and  Circumferences  of  Circles,  and  the  Con- 
tent in  Gallons  at  1  Foot  in  Depth.— (Continued.) 
[Area  in  Feet.] 


I'i.im. 

Circ. 

Area  in  ft. 

Gallons. 

Diam. 

Clrc. 

Area  in  ft 

(.all..,,.,. 

Ft  In. 

Ft.  In. 

1  ft.  depth. 

Ft  In. 

Ft  In. 

1  ft  depth. 

3   If 

•7854 

6-8735 

6 

14   14 

15-9043 

118-9386 

] 

3   4 

•9217 

5-8988 

7 

14   4| 

16-4986 

123-8830 

g 
i 

8   8 

1-0690 

7-9944 

8 

14   7? 

17-1041 

1279112 

3 

3  11 

1-2271 

9-1766 

9 

14  11 

17*7301 

L82-62M 

4 

4  2 

1-3962 

10-4413 

10 

15  2£ 

18-3476 

6 

4  6 

1-5761 

11-7866 

11 

15   5J 

18-9858 

142-0582 

6 

4  8 

1-7671 

13-2150 

7 

4  11 

1-9689 

14-7241 

6 

15  81 

19-6350 

146-8384 

8 

6  2 

2-1816 

16-3148 

5  1 

15  111 

20-2947 

151-7718 

9 

6  & 

2-4052 

17-9870 

5  2 

16  2| 

tt-MM 

156-7891 

10 

6  9 

2-6398 

19-7414 

5  8 

16  6| 

21-6475 

161-8886 

11 

6  2J 

2-8852 

21-4830 

5  4 

16  9 

22-3400 

167-0074 

5  6 

17  OJ 

28-0437 

172-3300 

2 

6  3 

3-1410 

23-4940 

5  6 

17   8 

23-7583 

177*6740 

2   1 

6  6 

3-4087 

26-4916 

6  7 

17   6 

24-4835 

183-0973 

2   2 

6  9 

8-6869 

27-5720 

6  8 

17   '.' 

25-2199 

188-6045 

2   3 

7  0 

8-9760 

29-7840 

6  9 

18  0 

25-9672 

194-1930 

2   4 

7  3 

4-2760 

82-6976 

5  10 

18   8 

26-7261 

199-8610 

2   5 

7  7 

4-6869 

34-3027 

6  11 

18  7 

27-4943 

205-6133 

2   6 

7  101 

4-9087 

36-7092 

2   7 

8  1* 

5-2413 

39-1964 

6 

18  10J 

28.2744 

211-4472 

2   8 

8  4} 

6-5850 

41-7668 

6  8 

!'.»   7'. 

80-6796 

229-4342 

2   9 

8  7 

5-9395 

44-4179 

6  6 

20  4j 

33-1831 

248-1564 

2  10 

8  109 

6-3049 

47-1505 

6  9 

21   2f 

36-7847 

267-6122 

2  11 

9   l} 

6-6813 

49-9654 

3 
3   1 
8   2 

9  6 
9  8} 
9  11 

7-0686 
7-4666 
7-8757 

62-8618 
65-8382 
68-8976 

7 
7  8 
7  6 
7  9 

21  11| 
22  9} 
23   6J 
24  4} 

38-4846 
41-2825 
44-1787 
47-1730 

287-8032 
308-7270 
820-3859 
I6S-76CI 

3   3 

10  2, 

8-2957 

62-0386 

3   4 

10  6 

8-7265 

65-2602 

8 

25  1J 

60-2656 

875-9062 

3   5 

10  8 

9-1683 

68-5198 

8  8 

25  11 

63-4562 

399-7668 

3   6 

10  11 

9-6211 

73-1504 

8  6 

_";  s* 

56-7451 

424-3625 

8   7 

11  3 

10-0846 

75-4166 

8  9 

27  5§ 

60-1321 

449-2118 

3   8 

11   6J 

10-5591 

78-9652 

3   9 

'I   91 

Vl  1-0446 

82-5959 

9 

28  81 

63-6174 

476-7MI 

3  10 

12   54 

11-5409 

86-3074 

9  8 

29  Of 

(7-9007 

502-5536 

3  11 

12   3| 

12-0481 

90-1004 

9  6 

_".•  i<>: 

70-8823 

630-0861 

9  9 

30  7* 

74-6620 

558-3522 

4 

12   63 

12-5664 

93-9754 

1 

12  9i 

13-095'J 

97-9310 

•2 

13   1 

13-6353 

101-9701 

10 

31   5 

78-5400 

587-3534 

3 

13  4£ 

14-1862 

103-0300 

10  8 

52   2  2 

82-6160 

617-0876 

4 

13  7| 

14-7479 

110-2907 

10  6 

32  11J 

86-5903 

G47-55G8 

6 

13  10J 

15-3206 

114-5735 

10  9 

33   9| 

90-7627 

678-2797 

DIAMETERS,   ETC.,   OF    CIRCLES. 


31 


Diain. 

Cire. 

V  rt-.i  in  li 

(iall-ns. 

1  ft.  depth. 
710-6977 
748*8686 

77G-774l> 
810-9143 

Diain. 

Circ. 

Area  in  ft. 

Gallons. 

Ft  In. 
11 
11     3 
11     6 
11     9 

Ft    In. 
34      G§ 
35      4j 
M     i 
M   104 

'...Vu;.:i 
99-4021 
103-8691 
108-4342 

Ft.  In. 
•_'l 
21     8 
21     6 
21     9 

Ft    In. 
65    111 

66      9 
67      6A 
68      8j 

346-8614 
354-6571 
363-0611 
371-5432 

i  n.iii-|ith. 

Jo'.MI-2-.".lO 

2052-2532 
2716-0413 
2778-6486 

12 
12     8 
12     6 
12     9 

37      8f 

:s    H 

39      8l 

l«)      (i. 

18497I 
117*6690 

rji!-71*7 
127-6765 

848-1890 
B81-89M 

917*7896 

'.'.•,1-1  .• 

22 
22    8 
22    6 
22    9 

69      14 
69    10| 
70     81 
71      6} 

3801336 
186*8290 
197*6067 

406-4935 

28427910 
2907-7GG4 
1978^889 

3039-9209 

13 
13     3 
13     6 
13     9 

40    10 
41      7i 
42      4j 
43      2| 

182*7881 
187*8861 

143-1391 
148-4890 

992-6274 
1031-1719 
1070-4614 
1108-0045 

28 
23    8 
28    6 
23    9 

72     8 

73     OA 
73     9J 
74     7i 

415-4766 
424-5677 
188*7871 
443.0146 

3107-1001 
3176-0122 
(848*6696 
018-0406 

14 
14     3 
14     6 
14     9 

43    11} 
ti     M 
46      6| 

46     4 

163-9384 
169-4863 

165-1303 
170-8736 

1161-2129 
L192-6940 

1234-9104 
1277-8616 

24 
24    8 

•Jl     • 
24     9 

76     4| 

76     2| 
76    llj 
77     9 

168*8904 
481*1088 

3383.1568 
1464*0061 
1626-6929 

8597.9068 

II 

15     8 
15     6 
15     9 

47     11 

17    In; 
Is      81 

I'.i      :.. 

176-7150 
1--J  i;.vr 
188*699 
I'.-i  B8BJ 

1321-6454 

]::•  V'.<.,::i 
1407-6165 

117.  .«,.:•_ 

26 
26    8 
18    • 

25    9 

78     6| 
7'.'      M 
80     11 
80    10^ 

490-8750 
500-7415 
')10-7(Mi3 
5207692 

•70^696 

3744-7462 

3894-6208 

16 
16     3 

n;    • 
16    9 

50      8} 
51      0 
51    10 
52     7{ 

201-OC24 
207-394G 
213-82'>1 

1608-6250 
1660*9791 

1599-069G 
1047-8930 

26 
M     : 
26     6 
20     9 

81      8J 
82     6J 
83     8 
84     Oj 

630-9304 
641-1896 
651-5471 
662-0027 

8970-5098 
KM7-8883 
4124  6898 
18084610 

17 
17     3 
17     6 
17    9 

53     U 
54     2j 
64    11  j 
56     9j 

2964801 

233-7055 
240-5287 
247-4500 

1697-4616 
1747-7431 
1798-7698 
1850-6301 

27 
27     8 
27     6 

•_•:    c. 

84     91 
85     8] 
86      41 
87     2J 

572-6566 
U8-806I 

598-9687 

604-8070 

4281-8072 
1861*4664 
1441*8607 

4622-9886 

18 
18     3 
18     6 
18     9 

56     6) 
57     4 
58     If 
68    10J 

2o4-4G9( 
261-6872 
268-8031 
276-1171 

1908*0864 
1966*2687 

2010-2171 
2064-9140 

28 
28    3 
28     6 
28    9 

87     11; 

B8     9 

89      6j 
90      3= 

615-7536 
l2e-798S 

637-9411 
649-1821 

4604-8517 
1686-4876 
4770-7787 
4854-8434 

19 
19     8 
19     6 
19     9 

59     8} 
60     6| 
61      8\ 
62     Oj 

288-6*94 

291-0397 
298*6481 

:n.;.  :;:.:,. 

2120-3462 
2176-5113 
2233-2914 
2291-0452 

29 
29    8 

29     6 
29     9 

91      U 

91    10| 
92     8J 
93     5i 

660-5214 
671-9587 
188*4948 

695-1280 

4939-6432 
6086*1769 

5111-4487 
5198-4451 

20 
20    3 
20    6 
20    9 

62     9£  314-1COO 
63        1  322-0630 
64      4f  330-0643 
65     2JI388-1687 

2349-4141 
2408-5159 
2468-3528 

L'.-.:>-'.'i::;:: 

30 
30     3 
30     6 
30    9 

94     21 

95     Of 
95      9| 
96      7^ 

706-86005286-1818 
718-69005374-6512 
730-61835463-8658 
742-644715553-7940 

32 


CAPACITY  OF  CANS  IN  GALLONS. 


Capacity  of  Cans  One  Inch  Deep. 

UTILITY    OF    THE    TABLE. 

Required  the  contents  of  a  vessel,  diameter  6  7-lOtht  inches,  depth  10  inch -a? 

Ity  ill.'  table  a  vessel  1  inch  deep  and  6  and  7-lW/ur  inches  diameter  contains 
•15  (hundmlllis)  of  a  gallon,  then  -15  X  10=  I'M  or  1  gallon  and  2  quarto. 

Required  the  contents  of  a  can,  diameter  19  8-lUfAt  inches,  depth  30  inches? 

l:y  the  tahle  a  vessel  1  inch  deep  anil  1'J  and  &-10/A*  inches  diameter  contain! 
1  eallon  and  -X\  ihundredthsi,  then  I'.'B  X  30  =  30-90  or  nearly  40  gallons. 

K.-qniri-il  tli.'  id  pth  of  a  can  whose  diameter  is  12  and  2-10TA*  inches,  to  con- 
tain 16  gallons. 

By  the  table  a  vessel  1  inch  deep  and  12  and  2-10/A*  inches  diameter  contains 

•60  (hundredth*)  of  a  gallon,  then  16  -=-•«)  =  32  inches,  the  depth  required,  vix. : 

•50  )  16  ( 32  X  'SO  =.16  gallons! 


Itai 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

,°. 

A 

:> 

•03 

•03 

•03 

•03 

•03 

•04 

•04 

•04 

•04 

-06 

4 

•05 

•05 

•05 

•05 

•06 

•06 

•07 

•07 

•07 

•08 

5 

•08 

•08 

•08 

•09 

•09 

•10 

•10 

•11 

•11 

•11 

6 

•12 

•12 

•12 

•13 

•13 

•14 

•14 

•15 

•15 

•16 

7 

•16 

•17 

•17 

•18 

•18 

•19 

•19 

•20 

•20 

•21 

8 

•21 

•22 

-2-2 

•23 

•23 

•24 

•25 

•25 

•26 

•26 

9 

•27 

•28 

•28 

•29 

•30 

•30 

•31 

11 

•32 

•33 

10 

•34 

•34 

•3f> 

•36 

•36 

•37 

•38 

•38 

•39 

•40 

11 

•41 

•41 

•4-J 

•43 

•44 

•44 

•45 

•46 

•47 

•48 

12 

•48 

•49 

•50 

•51 

•52 

•53 

•53 

•54 

•55 

•56 

13 

•57 

•58 

•59 

•60 

•60 

•61 

•62 

•63 

•64 

•65 

14 

•66 

•67 

•68 

•69 

•70 

•71 

•72 

•73 

•74 

•75 

15 

•76 

•77 

•78 

•79 

•80 

•81 

•82 

•83 

•84 

•85 

16 

•87 

•88 

•89 

•90 

•91 

•92 

•94 

•95 

•97 

17 

•98 

•99 

1-005 

1-017 

1-028 

1-040 

1*051 

1-063 

1-075 

1-086 

18 

1-101 

1-113 

1*135 

1.138 

1-150 

1-162 

1-17") 

1*187 

1-200 

1-211 

19 

1-227 

1-240 

1-253 

1-266 

1-279 

1*299 

1-.S04 

1-317 

1-330 

1-343 

20 

1-360 

1-373 

1-385 

1-400 

1-414 

1-428 

1-411 

1-478 

1-482 

21 

1-499 

1-513 

1-527 

1-542 

1-556 

1-570 

1-585 

1-600 

1-612 

1-630 

•2'2 

1-645 

1-660 

1-075 

MM 

1-705 

1*720 

1-750 

1-770 

1-780 

23 

1-798 

1-M4 

1-830 

1-845 

1-861 

1-876 

1-892 

1-908 

1*928 

1-940 

24 

1-958 

1-974 

1-991 

2-007 

2-040 

2-056 

2-072 

row 

2-105 

26 

•2-  1  •_'.-. 

2*149 

2-159 

2-176 

2-193 

2-210 

2-227 

2-244 

2-261 

2-280 

26 

2*298 

2-316 

-:;:;:; 

:'•:.-.  l 

2*386 

2*4M 

2-422 

2-440 

2-460 

27 

LM7S 

2-515 

2-533 

2-588 

2-607 

me 

2-643 

28 

2-665 

2-684 

2-703 

2-722 

2-741    -.'-7i;4 

2-780 

2-800 

2*886 

29 

2-859 

2-879 

2-898 

2-918 

2-938 

2*968 

2-977 

2-997 

3-017 

S-036 

30 

3-060 

3-080 

3-100 

3-121 

3-141 

3-162 

3-182 

3-202 

8*828 

3-245 

31 

3-267 

8-288 

3-309 

3-330 

3-351 

3-372 

3-393 

;<-4H 

3-436 

3-457 

32 

3-481 

3-503 

3-524 

5-543 

3-568 

3-690 

3-612 

3-633 

3-655 

8-689 

S3 

3-702 

3-725 

3-747 

3-773 

3-795 

3-814 

3-837 

3-860 

8*889 

3-904 

34 

3-930 

3-953 

3-976 

4-003 

4-022 

4*046 

1*070 

4-092 

4-115 

4-140 

35 

4-165 

4-188 

4-212 

4-236 

4*260 

4-331 

4-355 

4-380 

36 

4-406 

4-430 

4-4,55 

4*483 

4*609 

4-577 

4*609 

4-626 

37 

4-654 

4-679 

4-704 

4-730 

4-755  4-7- 

4-834 

4*865 

4-880 

38 

4*909 

4*935 

4-961 

5-012 

5-120 

."•14L1 

39 

5-171 

5-197 

r.-L'-j-i 

o-ir.0 

5-904 

5*330 

5-357 

5-383  5-410 

40 

5-440 

5-467 

5-491 

5-521 

5-548 

5-576 

6r«03 

5-630 

5-657   5-684 

DEFINITION  OP  ARITHMETICAL  SIGNS.      33 

Definition  of  Arithmetical  Signs  used  in  the  Work. 

=  When  we  wish  to  state  that  one  quantity  or  number  is  equal 
to  another  quantity  or  number,  the  sign  of  equality  =  is  employed. 
Thus  8  added  to  2  =  6,  or  8  added  to  2  is  equal  to  5. 

-f-  When  the  sum  of  two  quantities  or  numbers  is  to  be  taken, 
the  sign  plus  -j-  is  placed  between  them.  Thus  3  -f  2  =  6,  that  is, 
the  sum  of  3  and  2  is  5.  This  is  the  sign  of  Addition. 

—  When  the  difference  of  two  numbers  or  quantities  is  to  be 
taken,  the  sign  mi  nut  —  is  used,  and  shows  that  the  latter  number 
or  quantity  is  to  be  taken  from  the  former.  Thus  6  —  2  =  8. 
This  is  the  sign  of  Subtraction. 

X  When  the  product  of  any  two  numbers  or  quantities  is  to  be 
taken,  the  sign  into  x  is  placed  between  them.  Thus  8  X  2  a*  6. 
This  is  the  sign  of  Multiplication. 

-7-  When  we  are  to  take  the  quotient  of  two  quantities,  the  sign 
by  -T-  is  placed  between  them,  and  shows  that  the  former  is  to  be 
divided  by  the  latter.  Thus  6 -7- 2  =  8.  This  in  the  sign  of 
Division.  But  in  some  cases  in  this  work,  the  mode  of  division 
has  been  to  place  the  dividend  above  a  horizontal  line,  and  the 
divisor  below  it,  in  the  form  of  a  vulgar  fraction,  thus : 

Dividend  6 

—  =  Quotient.         -  =  8. 
Divisor  2 

When  the  square  of  any  number  or  quantity  is  to  be  taken,  this 
is  denoted  by  placing  a  small  figure  2  above  it  to  the  right.  Thus 
6s  shows  that  the  square  of  6  is  to  be  taken,  and  therefore  6*  =  6 
X  6  =  36. 

When  we  wish  to  show  that  the  square  root  of  any  number  or 
quantity  is  to  be  taken,  this  is  denoted  by  placing  the  radical  sign 
y  before  it.  Thus  y/36  shows  that  the  square  root  of  86  ought 
to  be  taken,  hence  )/86  =  6. 

The  common  marks  of  proportion  are  also  used,  yii.,  :  :  :  :  as 
8  :  6  : :  4  :  8,  being  read  3  is  to  6  as  4  is  to  8. 

The  application  of  these  signs  to  the  expression  of  rules  is  ex- 
ceedingly simple.  Thus,  connected  with  the  circle  we  have  the 
following  rules: 

1st.  The  circumference  of  a  circle  will  be  found  by  multiplying 
the  diameter  by  8-1416. 

2d.  The  diameter  of  a  circle  may  be  found  by  dividing  the  cir- 
cumference by  3-1416. 

3d.  The  area  of  a  circle  may  be  found  by  multiplying  the  half 
of  the  diameter  by  the  half  of  the  circumference,  or  by  multiply- 
ing together  the  diameter  and  circumference,  and  dividing  the 
product  by  4,  or  by  squaring  the  diameter,  and  multiplying  by 


34  PRACTICAL    GEOMETRY. 

Now  all  these  rules  may  be  thus  expressed: 
1st.          diameter  X  3-1416  =  circumference. 

circumference 
2d'  8-1416 

diameter      circumference 
3d. X 2 =  area. 

diameter  X  circumference 
or,          • 7 =  area. 

or,  diameter2  X  '7854  =  area. 


PRACTICAL  GEOMETRY. 

T)RACTICAL  Geometry  is  an  important  branch  of  knowledge 
_[  to  all  who  are  in  any  way  engaged  in  the  art  of  building. 
The  workman,  as  well  as  the  designer,  requires  its  aid ;  and  unless 
he  is  acquainted  with  some  of  the  leading  principles  of  the 
science,  he  will  frequently  feel  an  uncertainty  as  to  the  results 
he  may  deduce  from  the  problems  which  are  presented  to  his 
notice. 

PROBLEM  I. 

To  inscribe  an  Equilateral  Triangle  within  a  given  Circle. 

Let  A  B  c  be  a  circle ;  it  is  required  to  draw  within  it  a  triangle 
whose  sides  are  equal  to  one  another.     Commencing  from  any 

Fig.  30. 


point  A,  mark  on  the  circumference  of  the  circle  a  series  of  spaces 
equal  to  the  radius  of  the  circle,  of  which  there  will  be  six,  and 
draw  the  arcs  A  D  D  B,  etc.  Then  join  every  alternate  point  as 
A  B,  B  c,  c  A,  and  the  several  lines  will  together  form  an  equi- 
lateral triangle. 


PRACTICAL    GEOMETRY.  35 

PROBLEM  II. 

Within  a  given  Circle  to  inscribe  a  Square. 

Let  A  B  o  D  be  the  given  circle,  it  is  required  to  draw  a  square 
within  it.     Draw  the  diameters  A  B,  o  D,  at  right  angles  to  each 

Fig.  31, 


other;  or,  in  other  words,  draw  the  diameter  A  B,  and  form  a  per- 
pendicular bisecting  it.  Then  join  the  points  A  c,  p  B,  B  D,  D  A, 
and  the  figure  A  B  c  D  is  a  square  formed  within  a  given  circle. 

PROBLEM  III. 

HUli in  a  given  Circle  to  inscribe  a  regular  Pentagon,-  that  it,  a 
Polygon  of  five  AMM. 

Let  A  B  CD  be  a  circle  in  which  it  is  required  to  draw  a  pentagon. 
Draw  a  diameter  A  D,  and  perpendicular  to  it  another  diameter. 

Fig,  32, 


Then  divide  o  B  into  two  equal  parts  in  the  point  B,  and  join  o  • ; 
and  with  E  as  a  centre,  and  the  radius  c  E,  draw  the  arc  c  r,  cut- 
ting A  o  in  F;  and,  with  c  as  a  centre,  and  the  same  radius,  de- 
scribe the  arc  F  o ;  the  arcs  c  F,  o  F  intersect  each  other  in  the 
point  F,  and  the  arc  o  F  intersects  the  circumference  of  the  circle 
in  the  point  o.  Join  the  points  c  and  o,  and  that  line  will  be  a 
side  of  the  pentagon  to  be  drawn.  Mark  off  within  the  circum- 
ference the  same  space,  and  join  the  points  A  H,  u  i,  i  K,  K  c,  and 
the  figure  that  is  formed  is  a  pentagon. 


36  PRACTICAL    GEOMETRY. 

PROBLEM  IV. 

Within  a  given   Circle  to   describe  a  regular  Hexagon;  that  is  to 
gay,  a  Polygon  of  six  equal  Sides. 

Let  A  B  c  be  the  given  circle,  and  o  the  centre.    With  the  radius 
of  the  circle  divide  it  into  parts,  of  which  there  will  be  six,  and 

Fig.  33. 


connect  the  points  A  D,  D  B,  etc.,  and  the  figure  A  D  B  E  c  v  will 
be  a  regular  hexagon. 

PROBLEM  V. 

To  cut  of  the  Corners  of  a  given  Square,  to  as  to  form  a  regular 
Octagon. 

Let  A  B  c  D  be  the  given  square.  Draw  the  two  diagonal  lines 
A  c,  and  B  D,  crossing  each  other  in  o.  Then,  with  the  radius  A  o, 
that  is,  half  the  diagonal,  and  with  A  as  a  centre,  describe  the 
arc  £  F,  cutting  the  sides  of  the  square  in  s  and  r ;  then,  from  B 

Fig.  34. 


as  a  centre,  describe  the  arc  o  H  ;  and  in  like  manner  from  c  and 
D  describe  the  arcs  I  K  and  L  M.  Draw  the  lines  L  c,  F  i,  n  M,  and 
K  B,  and  these,  with  the  parts  of  the  given  square  o  F,  i  H,  M  K, 
and  E  L,  form  the  octagon  required. 


PROBLEM  VI. 

To  divide  a  given  Iiine  into  nut/  Utimber  of  Parts,  which  I'nrtu 
shall  be  in  the  same  Proportion  to  rnrh  otJtt  r  us  t lit-  Parts  of  some 
other  given  Iiine,  whether  those  Parts  are  equal  or  unequal. 

Let  A  B  be  the  given  line  which  it  is  required  to  divide  in  ihe 
same  manner  and  proportion  as  the  line  c  D,  whether  the  parts  are 


PRACTICAL    GEOMETRY.  37 

equal  or  unequal.  On  the  base  line  c  D,  form  an  equilateral  tri- 
angle in  the  manner  already  described  in  a  former  problem.  Then 
take  the  distance  A  B,  and  with  K  us  a  centre,  describe  the  arc  r  a, 
and  join  the  points  r  and  o,  and  F  o  shall  be  equal  to  A  B.  Now, 

Fig,  35. 


if  from  the  points  e  I  K,  which  are  the  divisions  of  the  line  c,  we 
draw  lines  to  E,  as  H  K,  I  E,  and  K  K,  these  lines  will  cut  ro  in  the 
points  n  b  c,  which  will  divide  the  line  r  a  into  parts  proportionate 
to  the  divisions  of  the  line  0  D. 

PROBLEM  VII. 

On  a  ylvrn  TAne  to  draw  a  Polygon  of  any  \innbfr  of  Side*,  »o 
tlt.it  th<it  l.iii,-  shall  !>,-  ,,,,e  Bide  of  a  Polygon  ;  or,  in  othrr  trortto, 
t<>  1111,1  the  Centre  of  a  t'lrvle  which  xhull  rtrrutnserlbe  any  JPoly- 
tftin,  the  Lenyth  of  the  Side  of  tlm  Polygon  being  givv*. 

We  shall  here  show,  in  a  tabular  form,  the  length  of  the  radius 
of  a  circle,  which  shall  contain  the  given  line,  as  a  side  of  the 
required  polygon;  and  here  we  will  suppose  the  line  to  be  divided 
into  one  thousand  equal  parts,  and  the  radius  into  a  certain 
number  of  like  parts.  The  radius  of  the  circle  for  different 
figures  will  be  as  follows : 

For  an  inscribed  Triangle 677 

Square 701 

Pentagon 860 

Hexagon 1000 

I  I  <'}>t  II ""nil  ....... 1  152 

Octagon 1306J 

Enneagon 1462 

Decagon 1618 

Endecagon 1776 

Dodecagon 1932 

By  this  table  the  workman  may,  with  a  simple  proportion,  find 
the  radius  of  a  circle  which  shall  contain  a  polygon,  one  side  being 
given :  thus,  if  it  be  required  to  draw  a  pentagon,  the  side  given 
being  fifteen  inches,  we  may  say  as  1000  is  to  15,  so  is  850,  the 
tabular  number  for  a  pentagon,  to  12  inches  and  seventy-five  hun- 


38  PRACTICAL    GEOMETRY. 

dredth  parts  of  an  inch,  or  seven-tenths  and  a  half  of  a  tenth  of 
an  inch. 

\\  c  may  here  give  another  table  for  the  construction  of  polygons, 
one  in  which  the  radius  of  the  circum.-criliin^  circle  is  given.  If 
it  be  required  to  find  the  side  of  the  inscribed  polygon,  the  radius 
being  one  thousand  parts,  the  sides  of  the  different  polygons  will 
be  according  to  the  following  scale : 

The  Triangle 1732 

Square 1414 

Pentagon 1176 

Hexagon 1000 

Heptagon 867  J 

Octagon 765 

Enneagon 684 

Decagon 618 

Endecagon 563J 

Dodecagon 517  \ 

Here,  as  in  the  case  already  mentioned,  the  law  of  proportion 
applies,  and  the  statement  may  be  thus  made:  as  one  thousand  is 
to  the  number  of  inches  contained  in  the  radius  of  the  given  cir- 
cle, so  is  the  tabular  number  for  the  required  polygon  to  the  length 
of  one  of  its  sides  in  inches.  Thus,  let  it  be  supposed  that  we  have 
a  circle  whose  radius  in  inches  is  30,  and  that  we  wish  to  inscribe 
an  octagon  within  it;  then  say  as  1000  is  to  30  inches,  so  is  765 
to  "2'2  inches  and  95-100  parts  of  an  inch,  the  length  of  the  side  of 
the  required  octagon. 

Method  of  Drawing  Curved  Lines. 

We  will  now  introduce  a  few  remarks  upon  the  method  of  draw- 
ing curved  lines,  and  also  give  some  rules  for  finding  the  forms  of 
mouldings  when  they  are  to  mitre  together,  that  is  to  say,  of 
raking  mouldings,  and  of  bevel  work  in  general.  It  will  also  be 
necessary  to  make  a  few  remarks  upon  the  form  of  ribs  for  domes 
and  groins,  a  knowledge  of  which  is  so  necessary  to  the  builder 
that  without  it  the  workman  cannot  correctly  execute  his  task. 
It  is  hardly  necessary  to  state,  that  all  these  mechanical  operations 
are  founded  upon  geometrical  principles;  and,  unless  he  is  ac- 
quainted with  these,  the  workman  cannot  hope  to  succeed  in  his 
attempt  to  excel  in  his  art, — one  which  is  necessary  for  the  com- 
fort and  convenience  of  all  communities. 


PROBLEM  VIII. 


To  iJrnir  tin  Ellipsf  irith  tlif  Jliitr  and  Cntnpn-aiira,  the  tran»vme  and 
cimjuyittr  IHitim-ti-ra  l»-iny  given;  that  ia,  the  length  and  width. 

Let  A  B  be  the  transverse  or  longest  diameter  ;  c  i>  the  conjugate 
or  shortest  diameter  ;  and  o  the  point  of  their  intersection,  that 


PRACTICAL    GEOMETRY. 


39 


is,  the  centre  of  the  ellipse.  Take  the  distance  o  c  or  o  n;  and, 
taking  A  as  one  point,  mark  that  distance  A  E  upon  the  line  A  o. 
Divide  o  E  into  three  equal  parts,  and  take  from  A  F,  a  distance 
•  r,  equal  to  one  of  those  parts.  Make  o  o  equal  to  o  F.  With 
the  radius  r  o,  and  v  and  o  as  centres,  strike  arcs  which  shall  in- 
tersect each  other  in  the  points  i  and  H.  Then  draw  the  lines  H 

Fig.  36. 


j  K,  H  o  M,  and  i  F  i.,  i  o  N  With  T  as  a  centre,  and  the  radius 
A  F,  describe  the  arc  L  A  K  ;  and,  from  a  as  a  centre,  with  the  name 
radius,  describe  the  arc  M  »  N.  With  the  radius  H  c,  and  H  as  a 
centre,  describe  the  arc  K  o  M ;  and,  from  the  point  i,  with  the 
radius  1 1>,  describe  the  arc  L  n  M.  The  figure  A  c  B  D  is  an  ellipse, 
formed  of  four  arcs  of  circles. 


PROBLEM  EX. 

To  draw  an  Ellipse  by  mean*  of  two  Co 

Fig.  37. 


Let  A  B  be  the  transverse,  and  r.  r  the  conjugate  diameter,  and 
0  the  centre  of  an  ellipse  to  be  drawn.     From  o  with  the  radius 


40  PRACTICAL    GEOMETRY. 

o  A,  describe  the  circle  A  o  B  D,  and  from  the  same  centre  describe 
another  circle  o  B  H  F.  Divide  the  outer  circle  into  any  number 
of  equal  parts;  the  greater  the  number,  the  more  exact  will  he  the 
ellipse :  and  they  should  not  be*  less  than  twelve.  From  each  of 
these  divisions  draw  lines  to  the  centre  o,  as  a  o,  6  o,  e  o.  Then, 
from  a,  b,  c,  etc.,  draw  lines  perpendicular  to  A  B,  and  from  the 
corresponding  points  in  the  inner  circle,  that  is,  from  the  points 
marked  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  draw  lines  parallel  to  A  B.  Draw  a  curve 
through  the  points  where  these  lines  intersect  each  other,  and  it 
will  be  an  ellipse. 

In  the  diagram  to  which  this  demonstration  refers,  only  one 
quarter  of  the  ellipse  is  lettered,  but  the  process  described  in  re- 
lation to  that  must  be  carried  round  the  circles,  as  is  shown  in  the 
dotted  and  other  lines. 

PROBLEM  X. 

To  describe  an  Ellipse  by  Means  of  a  Carpenter's  Square,  or  mpieoe 
,,f  notched  Lath. 

Having  drawn  two  lines  to  represent  the  diameters  of  the  ellipse 
required,  fasten  the  square  so  that  the  internal  angle  or  meeting 
of  the  blade  and  stock  shall  be  at  the  centre  of  the  ellipse.  Then 
take  a  piece  of  wood  or  a  lath,  and  cut  it  to  the  length  of  half  the 
longest  diameter,  and  from  one  end  cut  out  a  piece  equal  to  half 
the  shortest  diameter,  and  there  will  then  be  a  piece  remaining 
at  one  end  equal  to  the  difference  of  the  half  of  the  two  diameters. 
Place  this  projecting  piece  of  the  lath  in  such  a  manner  that  it 
may  rest  against  the  square,  on  the  ed^e  which  corresponds  to  the 
two  diameters;  then,  turning  it  round  horizontally,  the  two  ends 
of  the  projection  will  slide  along  the  two  internal  edges  of  the 
square,  and  if  a  pencil  be  fixed  at  the  other  end  of  the  lath,  it  will 
describe  one  quarter  of  an  ellipse.  The  square  must  then  be 
moved  for  the  successive  quarters  of  the  ellipse,  and  the  whole 
figure  will  thus  be  easily  formed. 

This  method  of  forming  an  ellipse  is  a  good  substitute  for  the 
usual  plan,  and  the  figure  thus  produced  is  more  accurate  than 
that  made  by  passing  a  pencil  round  a  string  moving  upon  two 
pins  or  nails  fixed  in  the  foci,  for  the  string  is  apt  to  stretch,  and 
the  pencil  cannot  be  guided  with  the  accuracy  required. 

There  are  many  other  methods  of  drawing  ellipses,  or  more 
properly  ovals,  but  we  can  only  notice  two  of  those  in  common 
use. 

1.  By  ordinates,  or  lines  drawn  perpendicular  to  the  axis. 
Having  formed  the  two  diameters,  divide  the  axis,  or  larger  diam- 
eter, into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  and  erect  lines  perpendic- 
ular to  the  several  points.  Next  draw  a  semicircle,  and  divide  its 
diameter  into  the  like  number  of  equal  parts;  that  is,  if  the  larger 
diameter  or  axis  of  the  intended  ellipse  be  divided  into  twenty 
equal  parts,  then  the  semicircle  must  be  divided  into  the  like  num- 
ber. As  the  diameter  of  the  semicircle  is  equal  to  the  shorter 


PRACTICAL    GEOMETRY. 


41 


diameter  of  the  ellipse,  or  conjugate  axis,  perpendiculars  may  be 
railed  from  these  divisions  of  the  diameter,  or  the  semicircle,  till 
they  meet  the  circumference;  and  the  different  perpendiculars, 
which  are  called  ordinates,  may  be  erected  Uke  perpendiculars, 
on  the  axis  of  ellipse.  Joining  the  several  points  together,  the 
ellipse  is  described  ;  and  the  more  accurately  the  perpendiculars 
are  formed,  the  more  exact  will  be  the  ellipse. 

2.  By  intersecting  arches.  Take  any  point  in  the  axis,  and  with 
a  radius  equal  to  the  distance  of  that  point  from  one  extremity  of 
the  axis,  and  with  one  of  the  foci  as  a  centre,  describe  an  arc  ;  then 
with  the  distance  of  the  assumed  point  in  the  axis  from  the  other 
end  of  it,  and  with  the  other  focus  as  a  centre,  describe  another 
arc  intersecting  the  former,  and  the  point  of  intersection  will  be  a 
point  in  the  ellipse.  By  assuming  any  number  of  points  in  the 
axis,  any  number  of  points  on  the  curve  may  be  found,  and  these 
united  will  give  the  ellipse.  This  process  is  founded  on  the  prop- 
erty of  the  ellipse ;  that  if  any  two  lines  are  drawn  from  the  foci 
to  any  point  in  the  curve,  the  length  of  these  lines  added  together 
will  be  a  constant  quantity,  that  is,  always  the  tame  in  the  same 
ellipse. 

PROBLEM  XI. 

To  find  the  Centre  and  the  two  AJC«*  of  an  ftllpse. 

Lot  A  B  c  D  be  an  ellipse,  it  is  required  to  find  its  centre.  Draw 
any  two  lines,  as  E  r  and  o  H,  parallel  and  equal  to  each  other. 

Fig.  38. 


Bisect  these  lines  as  in  the  points  i  and  K,  and  bisect  i  K  as  in  L. 
From  L,  as  a  centre,  draw  a  circle  cutting  the  ellipse  in  four  points, 
1,  2,  3,  4.  Now  L  is  the  centre  of  the  ellipse.  But  join  the  points 
1,  3,  and  2,  4;  and  bisect  these  lines  as  in  M  and  N.  Draw  the 
line  M  N,  and  produce  it  to  A  and  B,  and  it  will  be  the  transverse 
axis.  Draw  c  D  through  L,  and  perpendicular  to  A  B,  and  it  will 
be  the  conjugate  or  shorter  axis. 


42  PRACTICAL    GEOMETRY. 

PROBLEM  XII. 

Tixlrnw  a  flitt  A /•«•/»  !>;/  tin    in!,  / •*<  -rlion  <>/'  J.iin-K,  fuirintj  the  Open- 
I ny  ,in,l  Spring  or  lti*e  i/inn. 

Let  A  D  B  be  the  opening,  and  c  D  its  spring  or  rise.  In  the 
middle  of  A  B,  at  D,  erect  a  perpendicular  u  K,  equal  to  twice  c  i>, 
its  rise ;  and  from  E  draw  E  A  and  E  B,  and  divide  A  E  and  B  E  into 

Fig.  39. 


£  D  B 

any  number  or  equal  parts,  as  a,  b,  e,  and  1,  2,  3.  Join  B  a,  3  e, 
2  b,  and  1  A,  and  it  will  form  the  arch  required. 

The  more  parts  A  E  and  B  E  are  divided  into,  the  greater  will  be 
the  accuracy  of  the  curve. 

M  my  curves  maybe  made  in  the  same  manner,  according  to 
the  position  of  the  lines  A  E  and  E  B;  and  if  instead  of  two  lines 
drawn  from  A  and  B,  meeting  in  E,  a  perpendicular  be  erected  at 
the  same  points,  and  two  lines  be  then  drawn  from  the  ends  of 
these  perpendiculars  meeting  in  an  angle,  and  these  lines  be 
divided  into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  the  points  of  the  adjacent 
lines  may  be  joined,  and  a  curve  will  be  formed  resembling  a 
Gothic  arch.  The  demonstration  already  given  is  therefore  very 
useful  to  the  workman,  as  he  may  vary  the  form  of  the  curve  by 
altering  the  position  of  the  lines,  either  with  respect  to  the  angles 
which  they  make  with  each  other,  or  their  proportional  lengths. 


PROBLEM  XIII. 

/•<•  <>f  a 

tl>l     K'itll 

Fig.  40, 


To  find  the  Form  or  Ctirt-<it,,r<-  of  a  linking  Moulding  that  thtM 
14 ii it i-  correctly  icith  a  I.<  n  I  one. 


Let  A  B  c  D  be  part  of  the  level  moulding,  which  we  will  here 
suppose  to  be  an  ovolo,  or  quarter  round;  A  and  c,  the  points 
where  the  raking  moulding  takes  its  rise  on  the  angle ;  F  c  a,  the 
angle  the  raking  moulding  makes  with  the  horizontal  one.  Draw 


PRACTICAL    GEOMETRY.  43 

c  r  at  the  given  angle,  and  from  A  draw  A  E  parallel  to  it ;  con- 
tinue B  A  to  H,  and  from  c  make  c  H  perpendicular  to  A  11.  Divide 
c  H  into  any  number  of  equal  purls,  an  1,  2,  3,  and  draw  lines 
parallel  to  H  A,  as  1  a,  2  6,  8  c;  and  then  in  an;  part  of  the  raking 
moulding,  as  i,  draw  i  K  perpendicular  to  E  A,  and  divide  i  K  into 
the  same  number  of  equal  parts  H  c  is  divided  into ;  and  draw  1  a, 
2  b,  3  c,  parallel  to  B  A.  Then  transfer  the  distances  1  a,  2  b,  8  e, 
and  a  curve  drawn  through  these  points  will  be  the  form  of  the 
curve  required  for  the  raking  moulding. 

We  have  here  shown  the  method  to  be  employed  for  an  ovolo  ; 
but  it  is  just  the  same  for  any  other  formed  moulding,  as  a  cavetto, 
semirecta,  etc.  It  may  be  worthy  remark,  that,  after  the  moulding 
is  worked,  and  the  mitre  is  cut  in  the  mitre-box  for  the  level 
moulding,  the  raking  moulding  must  be  cut,  either  by  the  means 
of  a  wedge  formed  to  the  required  angle  of  the  rake,  or  a  box 
made  to  correspond  to  that  angle :  and  if  this  be  accurately  done, 
the  mitre  will  be  true,  and  the  moulding  in  all  its  members  cor- 
respond to  the  level  moulding.  The  plane  in  which  the  raking 
moulding  is  situated  is  square  to  that  of  the  level  one.  This  is 
always  the  case  in  a  pediment,  the  mouldings  of  which  correspond 
with  the  return. 

PROBLEM  XIV. 

To  find  the  Form  or  Curvature  of  the  Return  in  an  open  or  broken 
Pediment. 

Let  A  B  c  be  the  angle  which  the  pediment  makes  with  the  cor- 
nice, and  let  the  form  and  size  of  the  moulding  be  as  in  the  last 
problem,  and  as  shown  at  D  A  B  u.  From  u  drop  a  perpendicular 

Fig.  41. 


on  c  B,  and  draw  D  B  perpendicular  to  D  c,  or  parallel  to  c  B  ;  and 
let  D  B  be  equal  to  B  i  (Fig.  40).  Then  from  B  draw  B  r  parallel 
to  D  A,  and  divide  B  F  into  the  same  number  of  parts  as  i  K  (Fig. 
40),  at  1  a,  2  b,  3  c,  and  transfer  the  distances  1  a,  2  b,  3  c,  as  in 
Fig.  40.  Then  a  curve  line  drawn  through  the  points  a,  b,  e,  will 
be  the  form  of  the  return  for  the  moulding  of  the  open  pediment. 
The  mitre  for  the  return  is  cut  in  the  usual  manner,  but  that 
of  the  pediment  is  cut  to  the  proper  angle  of  its  inclination,  as  in 
the  last  problem.  In  fixing  the  mitre,  the  portion  K  D  o  of  the 
return  must  be  cut  away  to  make  it  come  flush  with  the  top  of  the 
pediment  moulding. 


44  EPITOME    OF    MENSURATION. 


EPITOME  OF  MENSURATION. 

Of  the  Circle,  Cylinder,  Sphere,  etc. 

1.  The  circle  contains  a  greater  area  than  any  other  plane  figure 
bounded  by  an  equal  perimeter  or  outline. 

2.  The  areas  of  circlet  are  to  each  other  as  the  squares  of  their 
diameters. 

8.  The  diameter  of  a  circle  being  1,  its  circumference  equals 
8-1416. 

4.  The  diamtter  of  a  circle  is  equal  to  -31831  of  its  circumference. 

6.  The  square  of  the  diameter  of  a  circle  being  1,  its  area  equals 
•7854. 

6.  The  square  root  of  the  area  of  a  circle,  multiplied  by  1-12837, 
equals  its  diameter. 

7.  The  diameter  of  a  circle  multiplied  by  -8862,  or  the  circum- 
ference multiplied  by  -2821,  equals  the  side  of  a  square  of  equal 
area. 

8.  The  sum  of  the  squares  of  half  the  chord  and  versed  sine 
divided  by  the  versed  sine,  the  quotient  equals  the  diameter  of 
corresponding  circle. 

9.  The  chord  of  the  whole  arc  of  a  circle  taken  from  eight  times 
the  chord  of  half  the  arc,  one-third  of  the  remainder  equals  the 
length  of  the  arc  ;  or, 

10.  The  number  of  degrees  contained  in  the  arc  of  a  circle,  mul- 
tiplied by  the  dianfeter  of  the  circle  and  by  -008727,  the  product 
equals  the  length  of  the  arc  in  equal  terms  of  unity. 

11.  The  length  of  the  arc  of  a  sector  of  a  circle  multiplied  by  its 
radius,  equals  twice  the  area  of  the  sector. 

12.  The  area  of  the  segment  of  a  circle  equals  the  area  of  the 
sector,  minus  the  area  of  a  triangle  whose  vertex  is  the  centre, 
and  whose  base  equals  the  chord  of  the  segment;  or, 

18.  The  area  of  a  segment  may  be  obtained  by  dividing  the  height 
of  the  segment  by  the  diameter  of  the  circle,  and  multiplying  the 
corresponding  tabular  area  by  the  square  of  the  diameter. 

14.  The  sum  of  the  diameters  of  two  concentric  circles  multiplied 
by  their  difference  and  by  -7854,  equals  the  area  of  the  ring  or 
space  contained  between  them. 

15.  The  sum  of  the  thickness  and  internal  diameter  of  a  ci/lintiric 
riny,  multiplied  by  the  square  of  its  thickness  and  by  2-4674, 
equals  its  solidity. 

16.  The  circumference  of  a  cylinder,  multiplied  by  its  length  or 
height,  equals  its  convex  surface. 

17.  The  area  of  the  end  of  a  cylinder,  multiplied  by  its  length, 
equals  its  solid  contents. 

18.  The  area  of  the  internal  diameter  of  a  cylinder,  multiplied 
by  its  depth,  equals  its  cubical  capacity. 


EPITOME    OF    MENSURATION.  45 

19.  The  square  of  the  diameter  of  a  cylinder,  multiplied  by  its 
length  and  divided  by  any  other  required  length,  the  square  root 
of  the  quotient  equals  the  diameter  of  the  other  cylinder  of  equal 
contents  or  capacity. 

20.  The  square  of  the  diameter  of  a  tphere,  multiplied  by  8-1416, 
equals  its  convex  surface. 

21.  The  cube  of  the  diameter  of  a  tphere,  multiplied  by  -6236, 
equals  its  solid  contents. 

22.  The  height  of  any  spherical  tegment  or  tone,  multiplied  by 
the  diameter  of  the  sphere  of  which  it  is  a  part,  and  by  8-1416, 
equals  the  area  or  convex  surface  of  the  segment;  or, 

23.  The  height  of  the  tegment,  multiplied  by  the  circumference 
of  the  sphere  of  which  it  is  a  part,  equals  the  area. 

24.  The  solidity  of  any  tpHerical  ttgmtnt  is  equal  to  three  times 
the  square  of  the  radius  of  its  base,  plus  the  square  of  its  height, 
ami  multiplied  by  its  height  and  by  -5236. 

25.  The  solidity  of  a  tpherical  zone  equals  the  sum  of  the  squares 
of  the  radii  of  its  two  ends,  and  one-third  the  square  of  its  height, 
multiplied  by  the  height  and  by  1-5708. 

26.  The  capacity  of  a  cylinder,  1  foot  in  diameter  and  1  foot  in 
length,  equals  5-875  of  a  United  States  gallon. 

27.  The  capacity  of  a  cylinder,  1  inch  in  diameter  and  1  foot  in 
length   equals  -0408  of  a  United  States  gallon. 

28.  The  capacity  of  a  cylinder,  1  inch  in  diameter  and  1  inch  in 
length,  equals  -0034  of  a  United  States  gallon. 

29.  The  capacity  of  a  tphere,  1  foot  in  diameter,  equals  8-9156 
United  States  gallons. 

30.  The  capacity  of  a  tphere,  1  inch  in  diameter,  equals  -002165 
of  a  United  States  gallon;  hence, 

31.  The  capacity  of  any  other  cylinder  in  United  States  gallons 
is  obtained  by  multiplying  the  square  of  its  diameter  by  its  length, 
or  the  capacity  of  any  other  sphere  by  the  cube  of  its  diameter, 
and  by  the  number  of  United  States  gallons  contained  as  above 
in  the  unity  of  its  measurement. 


Of  the  Square,  Rectangle,  Cube,  etc. 

1.  The  side  of  a  square  equals  the  square  root  of  its  area. 

2.  The  area  of  a  square  equals  the  square  of  one  of  its  sides. 
8.  The  diagonal  of  a  tquare  equals  the  square  root  of  twice  the 

square  of  its  side. 

4.  The  side  of  a  square  is  equal  to  the  square  root  of  half  the 
square  of  its  diagonal. 

5.  The  side  of  a  tquare  equal  to  the  diagonal  of  a  given  square 
contains  double  the  area  of  a  given  square. 

6.  The  area  of  a  rectangle  equals  its  length  multiplied   by  its 
breadth. 

7.  The  length  of  a  rectangle   equals  the  area  divided  by  the 
breadth ;  or,  the  breadth  equals  the  area  divided  by  the  length. 


46 


EPITOME    OF    MENSURATION. 


8.  The  side  or  end  of  a  rrrtanglt  equals  the  square  root  of  the 
sum  of  i In'  iliiigoiiul  uud  opposite  side  to  that  required,  multiplied 
by  their  difference. 

9.  The  diagonal  in  a  rectangle  equals  the  square  root  of  the  sum 
of  the  squares  of  the  base  and  perpendicular. 

10.  The  solidity  of  a  cube  equals  the  area  of  one  of  its  sides, 
multiplied  by  the  length  or  breadth  of  one  of  its  sides. 

11.  The  length  or  breadth  of  a  side  of  a  cube  equals  the  cube 
root  of  its  solidity. 

12.  The  capacity  of  a  12-inch  cube  equals  7-4784  United  States 
gallons. 

Surfaces  and  Solidities  of  the  Regular  Bodies,  each  of 
whose  Boundary  Lines  is  1. 


No.  of  Sides. 

•MM* 

Surfaces. 

Solids. 

4 

Tetrahedron. 

1-7321 

0-1179 

6 

Hexahedron. 

6. 

1. 

8 

Octahedron. 

8-4641 

0-4714 

12 

Dodecahedron. 

20-6458 

7-6631 

20 

Icosahedron. 

8-6603 

2-1817 

The  tabular  surface  multiplied  by  the  square  of  one  of  the 
boundary  lines  equals  the  surface  required;  or, 

The  tabular  solidity  multiplied  by  the  cube  of  one  of  the 
boundary  lines  equals  the  solidity  required. 


Of  Triangles,  Polygons,  etc. 

1.  The  complement  of  an  angh  is  its  defect  from  a  right  angle. 

2.  The  supplement  of  an  angle  is  its  defect   from    two  right 
angles. 

3.  The  sine,  tangent,  and  secant  of  an  angle  are   the  cosine, 
cotangent,  and  cosecant  of  the  complement  of  that  angle. 

4.  The  hypothenuse  of  a  right-angled  triangle  being  made  nulii, 
its  sides  become  the  sines  of  the  opposite  angles,  or  the  cosines 
of  the  adjacent  angles. 

6.  The  three  angles  of  every  triangle  are  equal  to  two  right 
angles;  hence  the  oblique  angles  of  a  right-angled  triangle  are 
each  others  complements. 

6.  The  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  two   given  sides  of  a  right- 
angled  triangle  is  equal  to  the  square  of  the  hypothenuse. 

7.  The  difference  between  the  squares  of  the  hypothenuse  and 
given  side  of  a  right-angled  triangle  is  equal  to  the  square  of  the 
required  side. 


EPITOME    OP    MENSURATION. 


47 


8.  The  area  of  a  triangle  equals  half  the   product   of  the  base 
multiplied  by  the  perpendicular  height;  or, 

9.  The  area  of  a  trianyle  equals  half  the  product  of  the  two 
sides  and  the  natural  sine  of  the  contained  angle. 

10.  The  side  of  any  regular  polygon  multiplied  by  its  apothegm 
or  perpendicular,  and  by  the  number  of  its  sides,  equals  twice 
the  area. 


Table  of  the  Areas  of  Regular  Polygons,  each  of  whose 
Sides  is  Unity. 


Name  of 
Polygon. 

No.  of 
MM. 

SSRT 

Area  when 
Side  is  Unity. 

Interior 
Angle. 

Central 
Angle. 

Triangle..    . 

3 

0-2887 

0-4380 

60°  W 

120°  0/ 

Square  

4 

0-6 

1- 

90    0 

90  0 

Pentagon..  .. 

6 

0-6882 

1-7205 

108   0 

72  0 

Hexagon  ..  .. 

6 

0*660 

2-5981 

120   0 

60  0 

Heptagon.  .. 

7 

L4886 

.   i  .  .,'.1 

LS8S41 

61  2<r>ft 

Octagon  

8 

1-2071 

I  •-•_•-» 

186  0 

46  0 

Nonagon..  . 

9 

1-8787 

6-1818 

140  0 

40  0 

Decagon...  .. 

10 

1-6388 

7-0049 

144   0 

86  0 

Undecagon.. 

11 

1-TfJs 

147  16^ 

B4*£ 

Dodecagon... 

12 

1-8660 

11-1962 

160  0 

80  0 

The  tabular  area  of  the  corresponding  polygon  multiplied  by 
the  square  of  the  side  of  the  given  polygon  equals  the  area  of 
the  given  polygon. 


Of  Ellipses,  Cones,  Frustums,  eto. 

1.  The  square  root  of  half  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  two 
diameters  of  an  ellipse  multiplied  by  3-1416  equals  its  circum- 
ference. 

•J.  The  product  of  the  two  axes  of  an  tllipte  multiplied  by  -7854 
equals  its  area. 

3.  The  curve  surface  of  a  cone  is  equal  to  half  the  product  of 
the  circumference  of  its  base  multiplied   by  its   slant   side,  to 
which,  if  the  area  of  the  base  be  added,  the  sum  is  the  whole 
surface. 

4.  The  solidity  of  a  cone  equals  one-third  of  the  product  of  its 
base  multiplied  by  its  altitude  or  height. 

5.  The  squares  of  the  diameters  of  the  two  ends  of  i]\e  frustum 
of  a  cone  added  to  the  product  of  the  two  diameters,  and  that  sum 
multiplied  by  its  height  and  by  -2618,  equals  its  solidity. 

4 


48 


UTILITY    OF    THE    SLIDE    RULE. 


INSTRUMENTAL    ARITHMETIC, 

OB   UTILITY   OF  THE   SLIDE   RULE. 

The  slide  rule  is  an  instrument  by  which  the  greater  portion 
of  operations  in  arithmetic  and  mensuration  may  be  advanta- 
geously performed,  provided  the  lines  of  division  and  gauge-]. oinis 
be  made  properly  correct,  and  their  several  values  familiarly 
understood. 

The  lines  of  division  are  distinguished  by  the  letters  A  B  c  n; 
A  B  and  c  being  each  divided  alike,  and  containing  what  is 
a  double  radius,  or  double  series  of  logarithmic  numbers,  each 
series  being  supposed  to  be  divided  into  1000  equal  parts,  and 
distributed  along  the  radius  in  the  following  manner : 

From  1  to  2  contains  301  of  those  parts,  being  the  log.  of  2. 

177                             "              "  8. 

4                 602                            "              "  4. 

6                 699                            "              "  6. 

778                            "              "  6. 

845                            "              "  7. 

903                            "              •'  8. 

954                            "              »  9. 
1000  being  the  whole  number. 

The  line  D  on  the  improved  rules  consists  of  only  a  single 
radius ;  and  although  of  larger  radius,  the  logarithmic  series  is 
the  same,  and  disposed  of  along  the  line  in  a  similar  proportion, 
forming  exactly  a  line  of  square  roots  to  the  numbers  on  the 
lines  B  c. 

Numeration. 

Numeration  teaches  us  to  estimate  or  properly  value  the  num- 
bers and  divisions  on  the  rule  in  an  arithmetical  form. 

Their  values  are  all  entirely  governed  by  the  value  set  upon 
the  first  figure,  and  being  decimally  reckoned,  advance  tenfold 
from  the  commencement  to  the  termination  of  each  radius:  thus, 
suppose  1  at  the  joint  be  one,  the  1  in  the  middle  of  the  rule  is 
ten,  and  1  at  the  end,  one  hundred ;  again,  suppose  1  at  the  joint 
ten,  1  in  the  middle  is  100,  and  1  or  10  at  the  end  is  1000,  etc., 
the  intermediate  divisions  on  which  complete  the  whole  system  of 
its  notation. 

To  Multiply  Numbers  by  the  Rule. 

Set  1  on  B  opposite  to  the  multiplier  on  A  ;  and  against  the 
number  to  be  multiplied  on  B  is  the  product  on  A. 
Multiply  6  by  4. 
Set  1  on  B  to  4  on  A  ;  and  against  6  on  B  is  24  on  A. 


UTILITY    OP    THE    SLIDE    BULE.  49 

The  slide  thus  set,  against  7  on  u  is  28  on  A. 


82 
86 
40 
48 
60 
100 


etc. 


To  Divide  Numbers  upon  the  Rale. 

Set  the  divisor  on  B  to  1  on  A;  and  against  the  number  to  be 
divided  on  B  is  the  quotient  on  A. 
Divide  63  by  8. 

Set  8  on  B  to  1  on  A  ;  and  against  68  on  B  is  21  on  A. 

Proportion,  or  Rule  of  Three  Direct. 

HULK.  —  Set  the  first  term  on  B  to  the  second  on  A;  and  against 
the  third  upon  B  is  the  fourth  upon  A. 

1.  If  4  yards  of  cloth  cost  88  cents,  what  will  80  yards  cost  at 
the  same  rate  ? 

Set  4  on  B  to  88  on  A  ;  and  against  80  on  B  is  286  cents  on  A. 

2.  Suppose  I  pay  81  dollars  60  cents  for  8  cwt.  of  copper,  at 
what  rate  is  that  per  ton  ?     1  ton  =  20  net. 

Set  8  upon  B  to  81.5  upon  A  ;  and  against  20  upon  B  is  210  upon  A. 

Rule  of  Three  Inverse. 

RULK.  —  Invert  the  slide,  and  the  operation  is  the  same  as  direct 
proportion. 

1.  I  know  that  six  men  are  capable  of  performing  a  certain 
given  portion  of  work  in  eight  days,  but  I  want  the  same  per- 
formed in  three  ;  how  many  men  must  there  be  employed  ? 

Set  6  upon  c  to  8  upon  A;  and  against  8  upon  o  is  16  upon  A. 

2.  The  lever  of  a  safety-valve  is  20  inches  in  length,  and  5 
inches  between  the  fixed  end  and  centre  of  the  valve;  what  weight 
must  there  be  placed  on  the  end  of  the  lever  to  equipoise  a  force 
or  pressure  of  40  Ibs.  tending  to  raise  the  valve  ? 

Set  5  upon  c  to  40  upon  A  ;  and  against  20  upon  c  is  10  upon  A. 

8.  If  8}  yards  of  cloth,  1}  yard  in  width,  be  a  sufficient  quantity, 
how  much  will  be  required  of  that  which  is  only  Jths  in  width, 
to  effect  the  same  purpose  ? 

Set  1-5  upon  c  to  8'75  upon  A;  and  against  8-75  upon  c  is  15 
yards  upon  A. 

Square  and  Cube  Roots  of  Numbers. 

On  the  engineer's  rule,  when  the  lines  c  and  n  are  equal  at  both 
ends,  c  is  a  table  of  squares,  and  D  a  table  of  roots,  as 

Squares  1     4    9     16    25    36    49    64    81  on  c. 
Roots      128      4      5      6      7      8      9  on  D. 


50  UTILITY    OP    THE    SLIDE    RULE. 

To  find  the  Geometrical  mean  Proportion  between  two 
Numbers. 

Set  one  of  the  numbers  upon  c  to  the  same  number  upon  D  ;  and 
against  the  other  number  upon  c  is  the  mean  number  or  side  of  an 
equal  square  upon  D. 

Required  the  mean  proportion  between  20  and  45. 

Set  20  upon  o  to  20  upon  D  ;  and  against  45  upon  c  is  30  upon  D. 

To  cube  any  number,  set  the  number  upon  c  to  1  or  10  upon  D; 
and  against  the  same  number  upon  D  is  the  cube  number  upon  o. 

Required  the  cube  of  4. 

Set  4  upon  c  to  1  or  10  upon  D  ;  and  against  4  upon  D  is  64 
upon  c. 

To  extract  the  cube  root  of  any  number,  invert  the  slide,  and 
Bet  the  number  upon  B  to  1  or  10  upon  D;  and  where  two  numbers 
of  equal  value  coincide  on  the  lines  B  D,  is  the  root  of  the  given 
number. 

Required  the  cube  root  of  64. 

Set  64  upon  B  to  1  or  10  upon  D  ;  and  against  4  upon  B  is  4  upon 
D,  or  root  of  the  given  number. 

On  the  common  rule,  when  1  in  the  middle  of  the  line  c  is  set 
opposite  to  10  on  D,  then  c  is  a  table  of  squares,  and  D  a  table  of 
roots. 

To  cube  any  number  by  this  rule,  set  the  number  upon  c  to  10 
upon  D  ;  and  against  the  same  number  upon  D  is  the  cube  upon  o. 

Mensuration  of  Surface. 

1.  Square*,  Rectangle*,  etc. 

RULB. —  When  the  length  is  given  in  feet  and  the  breadth  in 
inches,  set  the  breadth  on  B  to  12  on  A;  and  against  the  length 
on  A  is  the  content  in  square  feet  on  B. 

If  the  dimensions  are  all  inches,  set  the  breadth  on  B  to  144 
upon  A  ;  and  against  the  length  upon  A  is  the  number  of  square 
feet  on  B. 

Required  the  content  of  aboard  15  inches  broad  and  14  feet  long. 
Set  15  upon  B  to  12  upon  A;  and  against  14  upon  A  is  17*6 
square  feet  on  B. 

2.   Circles,  Polygons,  etc. 

RULE.  —  Set  -7854  upon  c  to  1  or  10  upon  D;  then  will  the  lines 
c  and  D  be  a  table  of  areas  and  diameters. 

Areas  3-14  7-06  12-56  19-63  28-27  38-48  50-26  63-61  upon  o. 
Diam.  23456789       upon  D. 
In  the  common  rule,  set  -7854  on  c  to  10  on  D;  then  c  is  a  line 
or  table  of  areas,  and  D  of  diameters,  as  before. 

Set  7  upon  B  to  22  upon  A  ;  then  B  and  A  form  or  become  a  table 
of  diameters  and  circumferences  of  circles. 

Cir.  8-14  6-28  9-42  12-56  15-7  18-85  22  25-13  28-27  upon  A. 
Dia.  123         4         56         78         9       upon  B. 


UTILITY    OF    THE    SLIDE    RULE. 


51 


Polygons  from  3  to  12  tides. — Set  the  gauge-point  upon  o  to  1  or  10 
upon  i> ;  and  against  the  length  of  one  aide  upon  D  is  the  area  upon  o. 
Sides  8      6     6     7        8        9       10        11        12. 

Gauge-points  -438  1-7  2-6  8-63  4-82  6-18    7-69     9-87  11-17. 
Required  the  area  of  an  equilateral  triangle,  each  side  12  inches 
in  length. 

Set  -433  upon  o  to  1  upon  D;  and  against  12  upon  D  are  62-5 
square  inches  upon  c. 

Table  of  Gauge-Points  for  the  Engineer's  Role. 


NAMI- 

F,  V,  V. 

F,  i,  i. 

i,  i,  i. 

T,  L 

1,1. 

F. 

L 

Cubic  inches.. 

678 

83 

1728 

106 

1273 

106 

121 

Cubic  feet  

1 

144 

1 

1838 

22 

121 

88 

Imp.  gallons.. 

LM 

231 

277 

294 

363 

806 

629 

Water  in  Ibs. 

16 

23 

276 

298 

362 

806 

628 

Gold 

814 

1176 

141 

149 

178 

166 

269 

Biker    " 

15 

216 

261 

276 

834 

286 

6 

Mercury  " 

118 

169 

m 

216 

268 

226 

889 

Brass 

193 

177 

838 

864 

424 

369 

687 

Copper    • 

18 

26 

819 

331 

897 

846 

696 

Lead     ' 

141 

m 

243 

268 

81 

27 

IM 

Wro't  iron  ' 

207 

297 

867 

838 

468 

894 

682 

Cast  iron  ' 

222 

82 

884 

407 

489 

424 

788 

Tin 

219 

816 

878 

401 

481 

419 

728 

Steel 

202 

Ml 

862 

872 

448 

885 

671 

Coal 

127 

183 

22 

88 

28 

242 

42 

Marble   " 

691 

86 

102 

116 

18 

113 

196 

Freestone  " 

632 

916 

11 

1162 

14 

141 

21 

For  the  Common  Slide  Rule. 


NAMES. 

F,  F,  F. 

F.I,  I. 

i,  i,  i.  1 

F,  I. 

I.L 

F. 

i. 

Cubic  inches.. 

36 

618 

624  ! 

660 

799 

625 

118 

Cubic  feet  

625 

9. 

108 

114 

138 

119 

206 

Water  in  Ibs. 

10 

144 

174 

184 

22 

191 

829 

Gold 

607 

736 

88  > 

96 

118 

939 

180 

Silver 

938 

136 

167 

178 

208 

173 

864 

Mercury  '• 

738 

122 

127 

132 

162 

141 

242 

Brass    «' 

12 

174 

207 

221 

266 

23 

897 

Copper   " 

112 

168 

196 

207 

247 

214 

871 

Lead 

880 

126 

162 

162 

194 

169 

289 

Wro't  iron  " 

129 

186 

222 

236 

288 

247 

423 

Cast  iron  " 

139 

2 

241 

254 

804 

265 

458 

Tin      •• 

137 

136 

235 

25 

300 

261 

454 

Steel     » 

136 

183 

22 

233 

278 

239 

418 

Coal 

796 

114 

138 

146 

176 

161 

262 

Marble 

370 

63 

687 

725 

81 

72 

121 

Freestone  " 

394 

67 

69 

728 

873 

755 

132 

52  UTILITY    OF    THE    SLIDE    RULE. 

Mensuration  of  Solidity  and  Capacity. 

GENERAL  RULE.  —  Set  the  length  upon  u  to  the  gauge-point  upon 
A;  and  against  the  side  of  the  square,  or  diameter  ou  D,  are  the 
cubic  contents,  or  weight  in  Ibs.  on  c. 

1.  Required  the  cubic  contents  of  a  tree  30  feet  in  length,  and 
10  inches  quarter  girt. 

Set  30  upon  u  to  144  (the  gauge-point)  upon  A  ;  and  against  10 
upon  D  is  20-75  feet  upon  c. 

2.  In  a  cylinder  9  inches  in  length,  and  7  inches  diameter,  bow 
many  cubic  inches? 

Set  9  upon  u  to  1273  (the  gauge-point)  upon  A;  and  against  7 
on  D  is  346  inches  on  c. 

8.  What  is  the  weight  of  a  bar  of  cast  iron  3  in.  square  and  6 
ft.  long  ? 

Set  6  upon  B  to  32  (the  gauge-point)  upon  A;  and  against  3 
upon  D  is  108  pounds  upon  o. 

BY  THE  COMMON  RULE. 

4.  Required  the  weight  of  s  cylinder  of  wrought  iron  10  inches 
long  and  6}  diameter. 

Set  10  upon  B  to  283  (the  gauge-point)  upon  A;  and  against  5} 
upon  D  is  66-65  pounds  on  c. 

5.  What  is  the  weight  of  a  dry  rope  25  yards  long  and  4  inches 
circumference  ? 

Set  25  upon  B  to  47  (the  gauge-point)  upon  A;  and  against  4  on 
D  is  53-16  pounds  on  c. 

6.  What  is  the  weight  of  a  short-linked  chain  30  yards  in  length, 
and  -j^  of  an  inch  in  diameter  ? 

Set  30  upon  B  to  52  (the  gauge-point)  upon  A  ;  and  against  fl 
on  D  is  129-5  pounds  on  o. 

Power  of  Steam  Engines. 

Condensing  Engines.  RULE.  —  Set  3-5  on  c  to  10  on  D;  then  D  is 
a  line  of  diameters  for  cylinders,  and  o  the  corresponding  number 
of  horses'  power;  thus, 

H.  Pr.  3$       4668    10  12    16    20  25    80    40    50    on  c. 

C.  D.  10  in.  10J  12  18}  15*  17  18J  21$  24  2f.f  29$  33|  37f  on  D. 

The  same  is  effected  on  the  common  rule  by  setting  5  on  c  to  12 
on  D. 

Non-condensing  Engines.  RULE.  —  Set  the  pressure  of  steam  in 
pounds  per  square  inch  on  B  to  4  upon  A;  and  against  the  cylin- 
der's diameter  on  D  is  the  number  of  horses'  power  upon  c. 

Required  the  power  of  an  engine,  when  the  cylinder  is  20  inches 
diameter  and  steam  30  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Set  30  on  B  to  4  on  A  ;  and  against  20  on  D  is  30  horses'  power  on  o. 

The  same  is  effected  on  the  common  rule  by  setting  the  force  of 
the  steam  on  B  to  250  on  A. 

Of  Engine  Boilers. 

How  many  superficial  feet  are  contained  in  a  boiler  23  feet  in 
length  and  5$  feet  in  width  ? 


STEAM-ENGINE  —  HORSE    POWER.  53 

Set  1  on  B  to  28  on  A  ;  and  against  5  -6  npon  B  is  126*6  square 
feet  upon  A. 

If  5  square  feet  of  boiler  surface  be  sufficient  for  each  horse- 
power, how  many  horses'  power  of  engine  is  the  boiler  equal  to? 

Set  5  upon  B  to  126'5  upon  A  ;  and  against  1  upon  B  is  25-5 
npon  A. 

Horse  Power. 

As  this  is  the  universal  term  used  to  express  the  capability  of 
first  movers,  of  magnitude,  it  is  essential  that  the  estimate  of  it 
should  be  uniform. 

Its  estimate  is  the  elevation  of  88,000  pounds  avoirdupois  one 
foot  in  height  in  one  minute,  and  it  is  designated  as  being  Nomi- 
nal, Indicated,  or  Actual. 

The  first  designation  being  adopted  and  referred  to  by  Manu- 
facturers of  steam-engines  in  order  to  express  the  capacity  of  an 
engine,  the  elements  thereof  being  confined  to  the  dimensions  of 
the  steam  cylinder,  and  a  conventional  pressure  of  steam  and  speed 
of  piston ;  the  second  to  designate  the  full  capacity  of  an  engine, 
as  developed  in  operation,  without  any  deduction  for  friction  ;  and 
the  last  referring  to  its  actual  power  as  developed  by  its  operation, 
involving  the  elements  of  the  mean  pressure  upon  the  piston,  its 
velocity,  and  a  just  deduction  for  the  friction  of  the  operation  of 
the  machine. 

In  reviewing  the  various  modes  for  the  computation  as  submitted 
by  Engineers  and  Manufacturers,  there  is  no  proper  formula  that 
presents  the  essential  element  of  being  in  conformity  with  any 
other,  and  as  conformity  in  a  rule  for  this  purpose,  if  based  upon 
an  assimilation  to  the  capacity  of  an  engine,  is  all  that  is  requisite, 
it  would  have  been  preferable  to  have  adopted  an  existing  formula 
to  the  introduction  of  a  new  one,  had  it  been  practicable  to  have 
done  so.  It  occurs,  further,  that  there  is  not  only  a  want  of  con- 
formity in  the  various  rules  essayed  by  authors,  but  they  have 
neither  reached  the  cases  of  both  condensing  and  non-condensing 
engines,  nor  have  they  properly  approached  to  the  actual  power  of 
an  engine  ;  and  as  the  practice  of  operating  engines  since  the  adop- 
tion of  exist  ing  formula;  has  materially  altered,  both  in  an  increase 
of  pressure  and  velocity  of  piston,  the  following  rules  are  submitted. 

Nominal  Horse's  Power. 

CONDENSING    ENGINE. 
tP  V 

-— — -  =  horte't  power  ;  d  representing  diam.  of  cylinder  in  inches,  and 

i  )•  : 

v  tf.  e  velocity  of  the  piston  in  feet  per  minute. 

This  is  alike  to  the  rule  of  the  British  Admiralty,  substituting 
3(X'0  for  0000,  and  it  is  based  upon  a  uniform  steam  pressure  of 
10  bs.  per  square  inch  (steam  gauge,  or  above  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere),  cut  off  at  one-half  the  stroke,  deducting  one-fifth* 

*  The  friction  and  losses  in  a  marine  engine  may  be  taken  at  1-5  to  2  IDS.  per 
squ  iiv  inch  for  working  the  engine,  and  5  to  7}^  per  cent,  upon  the  remainder 
for  the  friction  of  the  load. 


54 


STEAM    ENGINE  —  HORSE    POWER. 


for  friction  and  losses,  with  a  mean  velocity  of  piston  of  250  feet 
per  minute  for  an  engine  of  long  stroke,  and  of  2UO  feet  for  one 
of  short  stroke. 

The  rule  of  the  British  Admiralty  is  based  upon  a  uniform  and 
effective  pressure  of  7  Ibs.  per  square  inch  at  full  stroke,  and  a 
mean  velocity  of  piston  of  205  feet  per  minute:  viz.,  170  feet  for 
a  stroke  of  2-5  feet,  and  240  feet  for  a  stroke  of  8  feet. 

NON-CONDENSING  ENGINE. 


This  is  based  upon  a  uniform  steam  pressure  of  60  Ibs.  per 
square  inch  (steam  gauge),  cut  off  at  one-half  the  stroke,  deduct- 
ing one  sixth  for  Inctiou  and  losses,  with  a  mean  velocity  of  pis- 
ton of  250  feet  per  second. 

Nominal  Horse  Power  of  several  Non-condensing 
Engines. 

<Pv 


Computed  from  Formula 


1000 


p. 


sr 

Diameter 
and  Stroke 
of  Cylinder. 

KOTO- 

Hone*- 
Power. 

Diameter 

and  Stroke 
of  Cylinder. 

Hero- 

lotion.. 

Hone*1 
Power. 

H'.  :  .-•  .  i. 
of  Cjl  Inder 

Bcro. 

lltioBf, 

No. 

In*.    Feet. 

Mln. 

Ins.    Feet. 

Mln. 

Mo. 

bu.    Feet. 

Kin. 

9- 

6X1- 

125 

46-1 

12X4-5 

82 

159-7 

22X55 

30 

9-2 

6     16 

85 

66-3 

14     8- 

47 

l*iO-7 

22    6- 

28 

12-2 

7     1- 

125 

66-3 

14     8-5 

41 

168-6 

22    6-6 

26 

12-5 

7     1-5 

86 

58- 

14     4- 

87 

169-4 

22    7- 

25 

16-3 

8     1-5 

85 

no- 

14     4-5 

34 

183-7 

24    6-5 

29 

16-9 

8     1-76 

76 

60-8 

14     6- 

30 

I-..;;-:, 

24    6- 

28 

21.1 

9     1-5 

87 

•;i-.s 

15     8- 

48. 

194-7 

24    6-5 

26 

21-3 

9     1-76 

76 

66-1 

16     8-6 

42 

193-6 

24     7- 

24 

21-4 

9    2. 

66 

66-6 

15     4- 

87 

198-7 

24    7-6 

23 

21-5 

9    2-5 

68 

66-8 

15     4-5 

83 

227-1 

26    6- 

28 

2H-1 

10     1-5 

87 

67-5 

15     6- 

M 

228-6 

20    •;.:, 

26 

26.6 

10     1-76 

76 

77-1 

16     8-5 

43 

227-1 

24 

27-2 

10    2- 

68 

77.8 

16    4- 

88 

288-2 

26     7-5 

23 

27-6 

10    2-5 

65 

78-3 

16     4-5 

84 

237-9 

26     8- 

22 

28-2 

10    8- 

47 

79-4 

16    6- 

81 

•_'•;>;• 

28     66 

26 

28-7 

10    3-6 

41 

81-7 

16     6-5 

29 

274-4 

28    7- 

25 

2&8 

10    4- 

86 

82-9 

16     6- 

27 

270-fi 

28    7-5 

23 

32-9 

11     2- 

70 

99-1 

18    4-5 

84 

276-8 

28    8- 

22 

33-3 

11     2-5 

65 

103-7 

18    6- 

82 

279-9 

28    8-5 

21 

33.4 

11     3- 

46 

103-4 

18    5-5 

29 

304-2 

30    6-6 

26 

33.9 

11     3-5 

40 

105- 

18    6- 

27 

816- 

80    7- 

26 

34-9 

11     4. 

36 

128. 

20    6- 

82 

324- 

30     7-5 

24 

39-2 

12    2- 

68 

127.6 

20    5-5 

29 

331-2 

30    8- 

23 

89-6 

12    2-5 

65 

129.6 

20    6- 

27 

(864 

30    8-5 

22 

40-6 

12    3- 

47 

130- 

20    6-5 

25 

M0*2 

30     9- 

21 

41-3 

12    3-5 

41 

134-4 

20     7- 

24 

359-1 

30     9-6 

21 

41-5 

12     4. 

36 

164-9 

±>     5- 

••'•2 

360- 

30  10 

20 

STEAM.  55 

Indicated  Horse  Power. 

This  is  the  gross  power  exerted  by  an  engine,  without  any  de- 
duction for  friction,  the  mean  pressure  upon  the  piston  being 
determined  by  an  Indicator,  or  by  a  computation  based  upon  the 
actual  initial  pressure  in  the  cylinder. 


Mixture  of  Air  and  Steam. 

Water  contains  a  portion  of  air  or  other  uncondensable  gaseous 
matter,  and  wh'en  it  is  converted  into  steam,  this  air  is  mixed  with 
it,  and  when  the  steam  is  condensed  it  is  left  in  a  gaseous  state. 
If  means  were  not  taken  to  remove  this  air  or  gaseous  matter  from 
the  condenser  of  a  steam-engine,  it  would  fill  it  and  the  cylinder, 
and  obstruct  their  operation  ;  but,  notwithstanding  the  ordinary 
means  of  removing  it  (by  the  air-pump),  a  certain  quantity  of  it 
always  remains  in  the  condenser. 

20  volumes  of  water  absorb  1  volume  of  air. 


Steam  Aoting  Expansively. 

To  Compute  the  mean  Prfn»urf>  of  Strain  wpon  a  Pifton  fry  //>//..  r- 
bolie  Logarithm*. 

RULE. —  Divide  the  length  of  the  stroke  of  a  piston,  added  to  the 
clearance  in  the  cylinder  at  one  end,  by  the  length  of  the  stroke 
at  which  the  steam  is  cut  off,  added  to  the  clearance  at  that  end, 
and  the  quotient  will  express  the  relative  expansion  of  the  steam 
or  number. 

Find  in  the  table  the  logarithm  of  the  number  nearest  to  that  of 
the  quotient,  to  which  add  1.  The  sum  is  the  ratio  of  the  gain. 

Multiply  the  ratio  thus  obtained  by  the  pressure  of  the  steam 
(including  the  atmosphere)  at  it  enters  the  cylinder,  divide  the  pro- 
duct by  the  relative  expansion,  and  the  quotient  will  give  the  mean 
pressure  required. 


56  STEAM. 

Table  of  Hyperbolic  Logarithms. 


N... 

Log- 

No. 

Log. 

No. 

Log. 

No. 

Log. 

No. 

Log. 

1-05 

•049 

2.65 

•'.'7.-, 

4-25 

•447 

6-8 

•768 

7-4 

2-001 

1-1 

•095 

2-66 

•978 

4-8 

•469 

686 

•766 

7-45 

2-008 

1-16 

•14 

2-7 

4-83 

•465 

6-9 

•775 

7-6 

2015 

1-2 

•182 

2-75 

1-012 

4-35 

•47 

5-95 

•788 

7-55 

INi-J-J 

1-25 

•228 

2-8 

1-03 

4-4 

•482 

6- 

•792 

7-6 

2-0^8 

1-8 

•262 

2-85 

1-047 

4-45 

•498 

6-06 

•8 

7-66 

1-33 

•286 

2-9 

1-066 

4-5 

•604 

6-1 

•808 

7-60 

2-080 

1-35 

•3 

2-95 

1-082 

4-65 

•516 

6-15 

•816 

7-7 

2-043 

1-4 

•836 

8- 

1-099 

4-6 

1-526 

6-2 

•824 

7-75 

2-048 

1-46 

•872 

3-05 

1-115 

146 

1-537 

6-26 

•833 

7-8 

2-064 

1-6 

•405 

8-1 

1-181 

4-66 

1-54 

63 

•841 

7-86 

2061 

1-65 

•438 

8-15 

1-147 

4-7 

1-648 

6-33 

•846 

7-9 

8-067 

1-6 

•47 

8-2 

1-168 

4-76 

1-658 

6-85 

•848 

7-95 

2-<>78 

1-65 

•5 

3-25 

1-179 

4-8 

1-569 

6-4 

•856 

8- 

2-079 

1-66 

•506 

8-3 

1-194 

4-86 

1  -679 

6-46 

•864 

1-7 

•531 

8'33 

1-202 

4-9 

1-689 

6-6 

•878 

8-1 

2-092 

1-75 

•56 

3-35 

1-209 

4-95 

•699 

6-66 

1-879 

8-15 

2-098 

1-8 

•588 

3-4 

1-224 

6- 

•609 

6-6 

L-887 

8-2 

2-104 

1-86 

•612 

3-45 

1  218 

5-05 

•619 

6-66 

1-895 

8-26 

2-11 

1-9 

•642 

8-6 

L-268 

5-1 

•629 

6-66 

1-896 

8-8 

2-116 

1-95 

•668 

8-55 

l-L'.T 

6-15 

•639 

6-7 

1-902 

8-33 

2  119 

2- 

•693 

36 

I-2S1 

5-2 

•649 

6-76 

1-91 

8-36 

2-122 

2-05 

•718 

3-66 

1*296 

5-25 

•668 

6-8 

1-917 

8-4 

2-128 

2-1 

•742 

866 

i  ••_••.•: 

5-3 

•668 

686 

1-924 

8-45 

2-134 

2-16 

•766 

3-7 

1.806 

5-33 

•673 

6-9 

1-981 

8-5 

2-14 

•2-2 

•788 

376 

1  -:VJU 

6-35 

•677 

6-95 

1-989 

8-66 

2-146 

2-25 

•811 

3-8 

].::.::, 

6-4 

7- 

8-6 

2-162 

2-8 

•838 

8-85 

1-348 

6-45 

-.;;,.; 

7^6 

1-953 

8-65 

2-158 

2-38 

•845 

8-9 

1-861 

6-5 

7-1 

1-96 

--..., 

2-159 

2-35 

•854 

3-95 

1-874 

6-65 

•7U 

7-15 

8-7 

2-163 

24 

•875 

4- 

1-386 

5-6 

•728 

7-2 

1-974 

876 

2-169 

2-45 

405 

1-399 

5-65 

•732 

7-25 

L-981 

8-8 

2-176 

2-5 

•916 

4-1 

1-411 

5-66 

•733 

7-3 

1-988 

8-86 

2-18 

2-55 

•936 

4-15 

1-423 

6-7 

•74 

7-33 

1-991 

8-9 

2-186 

2-6 

•966 

4-2 

1-435 

6-76 

•749 

7-35 

1-996 

8-95 

2-192 

NOTE. —  The  Hyp.  Log  of  any  number  not  in  the  table  may  be 
found  by  multiplying  a  common  log.  by  2-302685053,  usually  by  28. 

Example. — Assume  steam  to  enter  a  cylinder  at  a  pressure  of  34-7 
Ibs.  per  square  inch,  and  to  be  cut  off  at  J  the  length  of  the  stroke  of 
the  piston,  the  stroke  being  10  feet ;  what  will  be  the  mean  pressure? 

10  feet  -)-  -5  for  clearance  =  120  5  in*.,  stroke  10  -i-  4  -f  -5  for 
clearance  =  30-5  in*. 

Then  120-6  -f-  30-5  =8-95,  the  relative  expantion. 

Log.  of  number  3-95  =  1-374,  which  +  1  =  2-374. 
?^X^  =  82S_8=20.866^ 


STEAM. 


57 


When  the  Relative  Expansion  or  Number  fall*  between  two  numbers 
in  the  Table,  proceed  as  follows:  Take  the  difference  between  the 
logs,  of  the  two  numbers.  Then,  as  the  difference  between  the 
numbers  is  to  the  difference  between  these  logs.,  so  is  the  excess 
of  the  expansion  over  the  least  number,  which,  added  to  the  least 
log.,  will  give  the  log.  required. 

ILLUSTRATION.  —  The  expansion  is  4*84,  the  logs,  for  4-8  and 
4-85  are  1  5G9  and  1-579,  and  their  difference  -01.  Hence,  as  4-85 
oo  4-8  =  -05 :  1-679  co  1-669  =  -01  : :  4-84  —  4-8  =-04  :  -008,  and 
1-669  +  -008  =  1-677  =  the  log.  required. 


Effect  of  Expansion  with  Equal  Volumes  of  Steam. 

The  theoretical  economy  of  using  steam  expansively  is  as  fol- 
lows —  a  like  volume  of  steam  being  expended  in  each  case,  and 
expanded  to  fill  the  increased  spaces. 

Point 

Kipanilon 
Number. 

& 

O.in 
per  Cent. 

.:.  i-  m 

Point 
of  Culling 
Off. 

v=^ 

!•    •   ..'":.• 
ofSlMB. 

E& 

•1 

ID- 

8-802 

280- 

•6 

2- 

•69a 

69-8 

•125 

S' 

8-079 

208- 

•6 

1-66 

•507 

60-7 

•166 

6- 

2-791 

179- 

•626 

16 

•47 

47- 

•2 

6. 

2*008 

161- 

60Q 

1-6 

•406 

40-5 

•26 

4- 

2-886 

139- 

•7 

1-42 

•861 

86-1 

•3 

8-33 

2-208 

120- 

•76 

1-88 

•286 

22-8 

•:::;:', 

8- 

MM 

110- 

•8 

1-26 

a  ; 

20-6 

•876 

•J.'V, 

1-978 

97-8 

•875 

1-148 

•131 

18-1 

•4 

2-5 

1-916 

91-6 

•9 

1-11 

•104 

10-4 

In  this  illustration,  no  deductions  are  made  for  a  reduction  of  the 
temperature  of  the  steam  while  expanding  or  for  loss  by  back 
pressure. 

The  same  relative  advantage  follows  in  expansion  as  above  given, 
whatever  may  be  the  initial  pressure  of  the  steam. 

Gain  in  Fuel,  and  Initial  Pressure  of  Steam  required, 
when  acting  Expansively,  compared  with  Non-Ex- 
pansion or  Full  Stroke. 


Point  of 
Cutting 
Off. 

Gain  in 
FueL 

Initial  Pressure 
Required. 

Pointof 
Cutting 
Off. 

Gain  in 
FueL 

Initial  Pressure 
Required. 

Cutting 
Off. 

Full 
Stroke. 

CutUng 

Lbs. 
1-32 
1-67 
2-6 

Full 
Stroke. 

Lbe. 
1- 
1- 
1- 

Stroke. 

PerCent 
11-7 
22-4 
82- 
41- 

Lbs. 
1-01 
1-03 
1-09 
1-18 

Lbe. 
1- 
1- 

1- 

Btnfct 

Percent. 
49-6 
68-2 
67-6 

58 


STEAM    ENGINE  —  SLIDE-VALVES 


The*  Relative  Effect  of  Steam  during  Expansion  is  obtained  from 
the  preceding  rule. 

The  Mechanical  Effect  of  Steam  in  a  cylinder  is  the  product  of 
the  mean  pressure  in  Ibs.,  and  the  distance  through  which  it  has 
passed  in  feet. 

The  Pressure  at  the  End  of  a  Stroke,  or  at  any  Given  Point  of  the 
Stroke,  is  obtained  by  dividing  the  initial  pressure  by  the  portion 
of  the  stroke  performed  when  the  steam  is  cut  off. 

Slide-  Valve*. 
All  Dimensions  in  Inches. 

To  Compute,  how  much  Lap  mtwt  be  given  on  the  Steam  Side  of  a 

Sliili:  ><!/<•'•  to  ,-nt  <,]l   ll,  •    >/.-<im   <it  ' 


,  if   ,jii;n    1'tirt  <////<• 
of  the  Piston. 

RULE.  —  From  the  length  of  stroke  of  piston  subtract  the  length 
of  the  stroke  that  is  to  be  made  before  the  steam  is  cut  off;  divide 
the  remainder  by  the  stroke  of  the  piston,  and  extract  the  square 
root  of  the  quotient.  Multiply  this  root  by  half  the  throjv  of  the 
valve,  from  the  product  subtract  half  the  lead,  and  the  remainder 
will  give  the  lap  required. 

Example.—  Having  stroke  of  piston  60  inches,  stroke  of  valve 
16  indies,  lap  upon  exhaust  side  £  inch  =  ^  of  valve  stroke,  lap 
upon  steam  side  3}  inches,  lend  2  inches,  steam  to  be  cut  off  at 
£  the  stroke  ;  what  is  the  lap  ? 


60—    of  60  =  10-  j    =-166.  ^-166  =  408.  -408  X  y  =  3-264, 
and  8-264  —  r  =  2-264  inchct  or  the  lap  —  half  the  lead. 

To  Compute  the  Lap  required  on  the  Steam  Side  of  a  Valve,  to  cut 
the  Steam  off  at  various  Portions  of  the  Stroke  of  the 

Valve  without  Lead. 


Lap  in  parts  of  \ 
the  stroke..../ 

Distance  of  the  piston  from  the  end  of  its  stroke  when  the 
steam  is  cut  off,  in  parts  of  the  length  of  its  stroke. 

ft 

A 

i 

•286 

A 

i 

A 

i 

J_ 

•177 

A 

A 

•354 

•328 

•27 

•25 

•228 

•204 

•144 

•1H_> 

ILLUSTRATION. — Take  the  elements  of  the  preceding  case. 

Under  £  is  -204,  and  -204  X  16  ==  3-264  inches  lap. 

When  the  Valve  is  to  have  Lead. — Subtract  half  the  pro- 
posed lead  from  the  lap  ascertained  by  the  table,  and  the  remainder 
will  be  the  proper  lap  to  give  to  the  valve. 

If,  therefore,  as  in  the  last  case,  the  valve  was  to  have  2  inches 
lead,  then  2  -j-  2  —  3-264  =  2-264  inchet. 


STEAM    ENGINE — SLIDE-VALVES. 


59 


Portion  of  the  Stroke  of  a  Piston  at  which  the  Exhaust- 
ing Port  is  closed  and  opened. 

Lap  on  the  Exhautt  Side  of  the  Valoe  in  Partt  of  it»  throw. 


Lap. 

Portion  of  Stroke  at  which  the  Steam  is  cat  off 

i 

A 

i 

A 

i 

i 

A 

A 

A 

•178 

•161 

•148 

•126 

•109 

<m 

•074 

•058 

T 

•18 

•118 

•1 

•086 

•071 

•068 

•048 

•027 

jj 

•118 

•101 

466 

.,.,... 

•053 

•043 

•033 

•024 

0 

•092 

•082 

•067 

•066 

041 

•IK;.; 

•022 

•Oil 

B 

i 

•038 

•026 

•019 

•012 

•008 

•004 

•001 

•001 

i 

•06 

•062 

•04 

•03 

•022 

•015 

•008 

•002 

X 

•073 

•066 

•061 

•042 

•.,:;:; 

•023 

013 

•004 

tf 

•092 

•082 

•067 

•065 

•044 

•083 

•022 

•on 

The  units  in  the  columns  of  the  table  marked  A  eipress  the 
distance  of  the  piston,  in  parts  of  its  stroke,  from  the  end  of  the 
stroke  when  the  exhaust  port  in  advance  of  it  is  closed  ;  and  those 
in  the  columns  of  the  table  marked  B  express  the  distance  of  the 
piston,  in  parts  of  its  stroke,  from  the  end  of  Us  stroke  when  the 
exhaust  port  behind  it  is  opened. 

ILLUSTRATION. — A  slide-valve  is  to  cut  off  at  }  from  the  end  of 
the  stroke  of  the  piston,  the  lap  on  the  exhaust  side  is  jlj  of  the 
stroke  of  the  valve  (Iti  inches),  and  the  stroke  of  the  piston  is  60 
inches.  At  what  point  of  the  stroke  of  the  piston  will  the  exhaust 
port  in  advance  of  it  be  closed,  and  the  one  behind  it  opened? 

Under  }  in  table  A,  opposite  to  ,V  is  -0->3,  which  x  <»0,  the 
length  of  the  stroke  =  3-18  inches;  ami  under  j  in  table  B,  oppo- 
site to  jV,  ia  -033,  which  X  '>"  =  I'-'8  inehet. 

If  the  lap  on  the  exhaust  side  of  this  valve  wan  increased,  the 
effect  would  be  to  cause  the  port  in  advance  of  the  vnlve  to  be 
closed  sooner,  and  the  port  behind  it  opened  later.  And  if  the 
lap  on  the  exhaust  side  was  removed  entirely,  the  port  in  advance 
of  the  piston  would  be  shut,  and  the  one  behind  it  open,  at  the 
same  time. 

The  lap  on  the  steam  side  should  always  be  greater  than  that 
on  the  exhaust  side,  and  the  difference  greater  the  higher  the 
Telocity  of  the  piston. 

In  fast-running  engines  alike  to  locomotives,  it  is  necessary  to 
open  the  exhaust  valve  before  the  end  of  the  stroke  of  the  piston, 
in  order  to  give  more  time  for  the  escape  of  the  steam. 

To  Ancertaln  the  Breadth  of  the  forts. 

Half  the  throw  of  the  valve  should  be  at  least  equal  to  the  lap 
on  the  steam  side,  added  to  the  breadth  of  the  port.  If  this 


60 


STEAM    ENGINE  —  SLIDE-VALVES. 


breadth  does  not  give  the  required  area  of  port,  the  throw  of  the 
valve  must  be  increased  until  the  required  area  is  attained. 

To  Compute  the  Stroke  of  a  Slide-ruin: 

RULE. — To  twice  the  lap  add  twice  the  width  of  a  steam  port  in 
inches,  and  the  sum  will  give  the  stroke  required. 

Expansion  by  lap,  with  a  slide-valve  operated  by  an  eccentric 
alone,  cannot  be  extended  beyond  £  of  the  stroke  of  a  piston 
without  interfering  with  the  efficient  operation  of  the  valve;  with 
a  link  motion,  however,  this  distortion  of  the  valve  is  soiiu-wliut 
compensated.  When  the  lap  is  increased,  the  throw  of  the  eccen- 
tric should  also  be  increased. 

When  low  expansion  is  required,  a  cut-off  valve  should  be  re- 
sorted to  in  addition  to  the  main  valve. 


To  Compute  the  Lap  and  Lead  of  Locomotive  Valve*. 

•32  t  =  lap  in  inches,  and  -07  t  =  lead  in  inchu;  t  reprctenting  the 
ttroke  of  the  valve. 

Giffard's  Injector. 

Maximum  Temperature  of  the  Feed-water  Admistible  at  different  Pret- 
turet  of  Steam. 


Pressure  per  square  inch... 
Temperature  of  feed  

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lba. 

Lba. 

10 

20 

30 

40 

60 

100 

148° 

138° 

130° 

124° 

120° 

110° 

The  capacities  of  injectors  are  denoted  by  the  diameters  of  their 
throats  in  millimetres;  thus  No.  4  has  a  diameter  of  4  millimetres 
=  4  X  'OS9*  =  -1S"6  inchet. 

The  expenditure  of  steam  increases  with  the  proportionate 
pressure  in  the  boiler. 

Raising  the  Safety-Valve  of  a  Boiler  will  lessen  the  pres- 
sure by  allowing  the  steam  to  escape  from  the  boiler,  thus  permit- 
ting the  water  to  rise  up  and  come  in  contact  with  the  over-heated 
iron,  and  probably  cause  an  explosion. 

The  Door  and  Damper  should  never  be  open  at  the  same  time, 
unless  it  is  absolutely  necessary,  as  the  cold  air,  that  would  other- 
wise have  to  pass  through  the  fire  and  become  rarified,  ru>lies 
through  the  open  door  above  the  fire,  and  impinges  on  the  tube 
and  crown-sheets,  and  has  a  tendency  to  contract  the  seams  and 
cau«p  them  to  lenk. 

Blowing  out  the  Boiler  under  a  high  steam  pressure,  the 
change  is  so  sudden  that  it  has  a  tendency  to  contract  the  iron,  and 
cause  the  boiler  to  leak. 


BELTS. 


61 


To  heat  Rooms,  1  square  foot  of  steam-pipe  surface  is  required 
for  80  cubic  feet  of  space ;  1  cubic  foot  of  boiler  is  required  for 
1500  cubio  feet  of  space.  One  horse-power  boiler  is  sufficient  for 
40,000  cubic  feet  of  space. 

BELTS. 

The  resistance  of  belts  to  slipping  is  independent  of  their  breadth, 
consequently  there  is  no  advantage  derived  in  increasing  this  di- 
mension beyond  that  which  is  necessary  to  enable  the  belt  to  re- 
sist the  strain  it  is  subjected  to. 

The  ratio  of  friction  to  pressure  for  belts  over  wood  drums,  is, 
for  leather  belts,  when  worn,  -47 ;  when  new,  -5 ;  and  when  over 
turned  cast-iron  pulleys,  -24  and  *27. 

A  leather  belt  will  safely  and  continuously  resist  a  strain  of  850 
Ibs.  per  square  inch  of  section,  and  a  section  of  -2  of  a  square  inch 
will  transmit  the  equivalent  of  a  horse's  power  at  a  velocity  of 
1000  feet  per  minute  over  a  wooden  drum,  and  -4  of  a  square  inch 
over  a  turned  cast-iron  pulley. 

A  vulcanized  India-rubber  belt  will  sustain  a  greater  stress  than 
leather,  added  to  which  its  resistance  to  slipping  is  from  50  to  85 
per  cent,  greater. 

In  high  speed  belting,  the  tension,  or  the  breadth  of  the  belt, 
should  be  increased,  in  order  to  prevent  the  belt  from  slipping. 
Long  belts  are  more  effective  than  short  ones. 

To  Compute  the  titreg*  a  Brit  or  Cord  is  capable  of  transmitting.— 
4  I  •    . 

RULE.— Multiply  the  value  of  C  from  the  following  Uble  by  the 
stress  in  pounds. 


Proportion  of  Arc 
•mbraoed  to  the  Cir- 
cumference of  the 

Tain,  of  Coefficient  C. 

Leather  Belu. 

ConU  <m  Woodra  SkearM. 

On  Wood  Drumi. 

Oa  Iron  Pulleyi. 

•MB*. 

Poli.hed. 

.O 

1-8 

1-4 

1-9 

1-5 

•3 

2-4 

1-7 

2-6 

1-9 

•4 

3-8 

2- 

8-5 

2-8 

•5 

4-4 

2-4 

4-8 

2-8 

•6 

5-9 

2-9 

6-6 

8-5 

•7 

7-9 

8-4 

9- 

4-2 

C  =  the  ratio  of  the  resistance  of  a  drum  or  puUey  to  slipping  a  belt 
or  cord  when  the  resistance  of  the  belt  or  cord  upon  the  under  or  slack 
side  is  known. 

Example. —  What  is  the  stress  a  belt  is  capable  of  transmitting 
when  the  arc  embraced  upon  the  surface  of  the  driving  and  wooden 
drums  is  -4  of  its  circumference,  and  the  power  or  tension  of  the 
belt  is  200  Ibs.  T 

8-8  X  200  =  660  Ibt, 


62  LIMES,   CEMENTS,   ETC. 

T<>  Compute  the  Stress  which  is  transmitted  to  a  Belt  or  Cord. 

RULE.  —  Divide  the  power  ID  pounds  transmitted  to  the  periphery 
of  the  pulley  by  the  velocity  of  the  surface  of  the  drum. 

Example.  —  A  cast-iron  pulley,  4  feet  in  diameter,  driven  by  a 
power  of  four  horses,  makes  100  revolutions  per  minute  ;  what  is 
the  stress  upon  the  belt? 

33,000  X  *  =  132,000  Ibt.  1  foot  per  minute. 

4  X  3-1416  X  100  =  1266-64  feet  velocity. 


Then  .  =  105  Ibt.  =  difference  of  the  stress  upon  the  belt  and 

' 


the  resistance  of  the  under  tide  of  it,  =  S,  and  S  -f  «  =  P.     P 


representing  the  stress  transmitted  by  a  belt,  s  the  resistance  of  its  under 
side,  and  P  the  sum  of  S  -f-  s,  or  the  stress  and  resistance. 

ILLUSTRATION.  —  What  should  be  the  resistance  of  the  under  side 
of  a  leather  belt  running  over  the  semi-circumference  of  a  cast- 
iron  pulley,  1  foot  in  diameter,  driven  by  a  power  of  200  Ibs.  ? 


LIMES,  CEMENTS,  MORTARS,  AND 
CONCRETES. 

Turkish  Plaster,  or  Hydraulic  Cement.  —  100  Ibs.  fresh  lime 
reduced  to  powder,  10  quarts  linseed-oil,  and  1  to  2  ounces  cotton. 
Manipulate  the  lime,  gradually  mixing  the  oil  and  cotton,  in  a 
wooden  vessel,  until  the  mixture  becomes  of  the  consistency  of 
bread-dough. 

Dry,  and,  when  required  for  use,  mix  with  linseed  oil  to  the 
consistency  of  paste,  and  then  lay  on  in  coats.  Water-pipes  of 
clay  or  metal,  joined  or  coated  with  it,  resist  the  effect  of  humidity 
for  very  long  periods. 

Exterior  Plaster  or  Stucco.  —  1  volume  of  cement  powder  to 
2  volumes  of  dry  sand. 

In  India,  to  the  water  for  mixing  the  plaster  is  added  1  Ib.  of 
sugar,  or  molasses,  to  8  Imperial  gallons  of  water,  for  the  first  coat; 
and  for  the  second  or  finishing,  1  Ib.  sugar  to  2  gallons  water. 

Powdered  slaked  lime  and  Smith's  forge  scales,  mixed  with 
blood  in  suitable  proportions,  make  a  moderate  hydraulic  mortar, 
which  adheres  well  to  masonry  previously  coated  with  boiled  oil. 

The  plaster  should  be  applied  in  two  coats  laid  on  in  one  opera- 
tion, the  first  coat  being  thinner  than  the  second.  The  second 
coat  is  applied  upon  the  first  while  the  latter  is  yet  soft, 

The  two  coats  should  form  one  of  about  1J  inches  in  thickness, 
and  when  finished  it  should  be  kept  moist  for  several  days. 

This  process  may  be  modified  by  substituting  for  the  first  coat 
a  wash  of  thick  cream  of  pure  cement,  applied  with  a  stiff  brush 
just  before  the  plaster  is  laid  on. 


LIMES,   CEMENTS,   ETC.  63 

When  the  cement  is  of  too  dark  ft  color  for  the  desired  shade, 
it  may  be  mixed  with  white  sand  in  whole  or  in  part,  or  lime  paste 
may  be  added  until  its  volume  equals  that  of  the  cement  paste. 

Khorassar.or  Turkish  Mortar,  used  for  the  construction  of 
buildings  requiring  great  solidity,  |  powdered  brick  and  tiles,  }  fine 
sifted  lime.  Mix  with  water  to  the  required  consistency,  and  lay 
on  layers  of  5  and  0  inches  in  thickness  between  the  courses  of 
brick  or  stones. 

Interior  Plastering. —  The  mortars  used  for  inside  plastering 
are  termed  Coarse,  Fine,  Gauge  or  hard  finish,  and  Stucco. 

Coarse  Stuff.  — Common  lime  mortar,  as  made  for  brick  masonry, 
with  a  small  quantity  of  hair;  or  by  volumes,  lime  paste  (30  Ibs. 
lime)  1  part,  sand  2  to  UJ  parts,  hair  $  part. 

When  full  time  for  hardening  cannot  be  allowed,  substitute  from 
15  to  20  per  cent,  of  the  lime  by  an  equal  proportion  of  hydraulic 
cement. 

For  the  second  or  brown  coat  the  proportion  of  hair  may  be 
slightly  diminished. 

Fine  Stuff  (lime  putty).  — Lump  lime  slaked  to  a  paste  with  a 
moderate  volume  of  water,  and  afterward!'  diluted  to  the  consis- 
tency of  cream,  and  then  to  harden  by  evaporation  to  the  required 
consistency  for  working. 

In  this  state  it  is  used  for  a  slipped  coat,  and  when  mixed  with 
sand  or  plaster  of  Paris,  it  is  used  tor  l\n-  titn»limy  coat. 

Gauge  Stuff,  or  Hard  finish,  is  composed  of  from  «J  to  4  volumes  fine 
stuff  and  1  volume  plaster  of  Paris,  in  proportions  regulated  by  the 
degree  of  rapidity  required  in  hardening;  for  cornices,  etc.,  the 
proporti6ns  are  equal  volumes  of  each,  fine  stuff  and  plaster. 

Stucco  is  composed  of  from  3  to  4  volumes  of  white  sand,  to  1 
volume  of  fine  stuff,  or  lime  putty. 

Scratch  Coat.— The  first  of  three  coats  when  laid  upon  laths, 
and  is  from  \  to  f  of  an  inch  in  thickness. 

One-coat  Work. — Plastering  in  one  coat  without  finish,  either 
on  masonry  or  laths — that  is,  rendered  or  laid. 

Two-coat  Work. —  Plastering  in  two  coats  is  done  either  in 
a  laying  coat  and  set,  or  in  a  screed  coat  and  set. 

The  Screed  coat  is  also  termed  a  Floated  coat.  Laying  the  first 
coat  in  two-coat  work  is  resorted  loin  common  work  instead  of  screed- 
ing,  when  the  finished  surface  is  not  required  to  be  exact  to  a  straight- 
edge. It  is  laid  in  a  coat  of  about  j  an  inch  in  thickness. 

The  laying  coat,  except  for  very  common  work,  should  be  hand- 
floated. 

The  firmness  and  tenacity  of  plastering  is  very  much  increased 
by  hand-floating. 

Screeds  are  strips  of  mortar  6  to  8  inches  in  width,  and  of  the 
required  thickness  of  the  first  coat,  applied  to  the  angles  of  a  room, 
or  edge  of  a  wall  and  parallelly,  at  intervals  of  3  to  5  feet  over  the 
surface  to  be  covered.  When  these  have  become  sufficiently  hard 
to  withstand  the  pressure  of  a  straight-edge,  the  inter-spaces  be- 
tween the  screeds  should  be  filled  out  flush  with  them,  so  as  to 
produce  a  continuous  and  straight,  even  surface. 
5 


64 


LIMES,    CEMENTS,    ETC. 


Slipped  Coat  is  the  smoothing  off  of  a  brown  coat  with  a  small 
quantity  of  lime  putty,  mixed  with  3  per  cent,  of  white  sand,  BO  as 
to  make  a  comparatively  even  surface. 

This  finish  answers  when  the  surface  is  to  be  finished  in  dis- 
temper, or  paper. 

Hard  Finish. —  Fine  stuff  applied  with  a  trowel  to  the  depth 
of  about  |  of  an  inch. 

Estimate  of  Materials  and  Labor  for  100  Square  Yards 
of  Lath  and  Plaster. 


Materials 
and  Labor. 

:;  i  .,,-- 
ll..i  1 
I  -11,1-1.. 

Two  Coats 
Slipped. 

Materials 
and  Labor. 

SCoaU 
Hard 

rWO<     ':it.< 

Lime  

4  casks. 

31  casks. 

White  sand.. 

Nails 

2i  bush. 

1  ;  [I,, 

13  H»s 

Plast.  Paris- 
Laths  
Hair  
Sand  

I     " 
2000. 
4  bush. 
7  loads. 

2000. 
3  bush. 
6  loads. 

MiiM.na  
Laborer  
Cartage  

1  " 

.,:  ,,,-y, 

I     « 

Hydraulic.—  1J  parts  unslackcd  hydraulic  lime,  1  £  parts  sand, 
1  part  gravel,  and  2  parts  of  a  hard  broken  limestone. 

This  mass  contracts  one-fifth  in  volume.  Fat  lime  may  be  mixed 
with  concrete  without  serious  prejudice  to  its  hydraulic  energy. 

Various   Compositions  of   Concrete.  —  Forts  Richmond 
and  Tompkius,  TJ.  S. 

Hydraulic.  —  308  Ibs.  ccment  =  3-G5  to  3-7  cubic  feet  of  stiff 
paste.  12  cubic  feet  of  loose  sand  =  9-75  cubic  feet  of  dense. 

For  Superstructure.  —  11-75  cubic  feet  of  mortar  as  above, 
and  16  cubic  feet  of  stone  fragments. 

In  the  foundations  of  Fort  Tompkins,  about  ^  of  its  volume 
was  composed  of  stones  from  J  to  J  of  a  cubic  foot  in  volume, 
rammed  into  the  wall  as  the  concri'tc  wa-<  \\\.\>\. 

Sea  Wall.—  Boston  Harbor.—  Hydraulic.—  308  Ibs.  cement,  8 
cubic  feet  of  sand,  and  30  cubic  feet  of  gravel.  The  whole  pro- 
ducing 32-3  cubic  feet. 

Superstructure.—  308  Ibs.  cement,  80  Ibs.  lime,  and  14-6 
cubic  feet  dense  sands.  The  whole  producing  12-825  cubic  feet. 

Cost  of  labor  and  materials  expended  in  laying  concrete  founda- 
tion at  Fort  Tompkins,  during  the  year  1849,  per  cubic  yard  as 
laid,  $2.26. 

Transverse  Strength 

Of  Concrete*,  Cement*.  HUnrtnrn.  r>i~rin>ltr>iti,  ami  Trass,  <h-<ltirr<l 
from  the  Expci-hnt-nt*  ,,f  <i,;,rr<its  T,,li,-,i  and  <iill,n.,i;;  I  .  v  I  . 
General  Treu»nnrt.  mid  M.  f'uisin. 

Reduced  to  a  uniform  Measure  of  Ont  Inch  Square  and  One  Foot  in 
Length.     Supported  at  both  Ends. 

^  ptr  *1uare  incn  °f  *ection,  representing  value  for  gen- 


eral use,  being  §  of  ultimate  breaking  strain. 


LIMES,   CEMENTS,   ETC. 
Experiments  of  Voisin,  1857. 


65 


•69 


1-69 


1-1M 


1 

[-46 

I- 

11 


;:••_• 
8  i 
1- 
2-7 

1-9 
•91 


•u 


1-12 
1-06 


1-1 


[•46 

HI., 


LHM 


•83 
•65 
•81 
•79 


Experiments  of  General  Totten,  1837. 


CtOMOll.  s.ud-4.  '  S.udl. 


Gravel 

Brick 

Gravel 


Eat 


•The  (nnlu,  bricki.  etc.,  wen  broken  Into  frMmraU  or  ipaUs  of  UM  raqiind 


Tensile  Strength 

Of  ritriiiui  Crtnrntg,  Mortara,  and  Ximonru,  drduffd  frntn  thr  Kx- 
l>,  i-i>n,-,,t.i  of  Vlcnt  find  ChntoHfy  at  Clmrbourg,  Gen.  Gilliimrc,  U. 
S.  A.,  Crystal  Palace,  London,  ,-tr. 

Weight  or  Power  required  to  Tear  asunder  One  Square  Inch. 


lUterlalt  and  MUlurti. 


Boulogne,  100  parts,  water  50 

90  days,  100  parts,  water  50 

Boulogne,  1  year,  Portland  (natu- 
ral)   

En-listi,   1   year,  Portland    (arti- 

fi.-Lii. : : 

Portland,  42  days,  cement  1,  sand  1 

"       135    "      '. 

"       English,  320  days,  pure... 
14  "     cement  1, 

•ad     i. 


Miwrl.l.  tod  MizturM. 


English,  pure,  1  month 

Roman,  1  year,  from  Septaria.. 
42  days,  cement  1,  sand  1 

u           u           1,    "     3 
Stonemasonry,  Roman  cement, 
5  mos 


713 
206 
393 
424 
191 
284 


66 


LIMES,   CEMENTS,   ETC. 


BRICK  AND  GRANITE  MASONBT,  320  DATS. 


Pure 

Cement  ...  4  \ 

Sand 1  / 

Cement,  Delafield  and  Baxter.. \  Cement...  61 

Sittings...  1  / 
Cement...  1  \ 
Sittings...  2/ 

•«      Lawrence  Co.. {pull 

••  *— ««, {SsEj} 

(Pure 

"      Newark  Lime  and  Cement  Co 1  Cement...  1  ) 

(Sand 2/ 

"       Brighton  and  Rosendale Pure 

"       Newark  and  Rosendale Pure 

«•       Pure  upon  bricks 

"       1,  sand  1  pure  upon  bricks 

"       1,     "     3          "  "      

"       Pure  upon  granite 

"       1,  water  -5 

"       1,       •«     -42 

"       Pure  upon  bricks,  without  mortar,  mean 

Common  lime 1  1  „ 

"        sand 2}  J 

Sand ."!..!.. 8  }up' 

Lime  paste 1  \ 

Sand 2/ 

Lime  paste 1  ) 

Sand 8  I 

Cement  paste ^  b) 


Crashing  Strength  of  Cements,  Stone,  etc. 
(Crystal  Palace,  London.) 

Reduced  to  a  uniform  Measure  of  One  Square  Inch. 


Portland  cement,  area  1,  height  1 
cement  > 
sand      / 


Portland  cement  1) 

sand       4/  ' 
Roman  cement,  pure.. 


LIMES,  CEMENTS,   ETC. 
Experiments  of  GFeneral  Oillmore. 


67 


DeUfleld     and 

Baxter 

High  Falls  (N. 
?.),  270  days- 
James  Rirer 

Jam.-s  Ri»er,  59 

days  ............ 


Portland(Eng.\ 
320  days- 


Stiff  paste 

Pur* 

Cement. 

Sand 

«  •  -in. -nt 4- 

Water 2-6 

Cement 4' 

Water 1-4 

Pure  cement....- 

Cement. 1 

Sand 2 


11.; 


i  .• 
I  i- 
IN 


Portland     Pure 


days 


i:..  -.-,,!,'.    H  .fV- 
nian  i,  320  days 


Cement 

•Hi 

ar 


Pure 

Lime  ...» 


Stiff  paste.. 

I!:,.' 


•  Ail  except  the  Om  were  i 


i  ef  n  Ibe.  per  *qur*  Inch. 


Akron,  New  York 

Brighton  and  Koaendale. 

CumlK-rland,  Md 

.lam.  •,  Hiver,  Va 

Newark  and  Itosendale. 

Portland,  Kui?llsh 

Remington,  Conn. 


N 


Round  Top.  Md. 
Rosendale,  H 


.       . 

,  Hoflman.. 


Sandusky  Ohio —...... 

-li-|.h.  nlstown,  Va. 

UUca,  I1L 


NOTE.  —  When  the  paste  ia  not  subjected  to  compression  during 
setting,  a  thin  paste  produces  as  strong  a  mortar  as  a  stiff  one. 

Experiments  of  General  Treussart 


Puizuolui.  and  Trui  —  UnrUr. 


Strasburgh 


Puzzuolanaf) 
Sand  .........  1  Udays 

Trass  .........  1  1 

Lime        .  1) 
Sand  .........  1V4 

Puzzuolanalj 


Poxroolua  ud  True  -Mortar. 


Lime  paste.  1     >.,,«_. 
nttirj 


.....  - 


Cement  paste,  95  days 13-8  "  Cement  paste  i,  lime  paste  1    4*2 

*          1,  lime  paste  J  13-C     Fire-brick  beam  f 2'1 

"  I,         <J         i  11-3     Portland  cement,  4  mos. 21'3 

"  1,         "         1    7'9  i|  Roman          "       4    "    14'8 

DEDUCTIONS. —  1.  Particles  of  unground  cement  exceeding  -fa  of 
an  inch  in  diameter  may  be  allowed  in  cement  paste  without  sand, 
to  the  extent  of  50  per  cent,  of  the  whole,  without  detriment  to  its 

f  Loaded  partly  along  the  bricks,  and  broke  through  them. 


68  LIMES,   CEMENTS,   ETC. 

properties,  while  a  corresponding  proportion  of  sand  injures  the 
strength  of  rnortar  about  40  PIT  rent. 

2.  When  these  unground  particles  exist  in  cement  paste  to  the 
extent  of  66  per  cent,  of  the  whole,  the  adhesive  strength  is  >liinin- 
ished  about  28  per  cent.     For  a  corresponding  proportion  of  sand 
the  diminution  is  68  per  cent. 

3.  The  addition  of  sift  ings  exercises  a  less  injurious  effect  upon 
the  cohesive  than  upon  the  adhesive  property  of  cement.     The 
converse  is  true  when  sand,  instead  of  sittings,  is  used. 

4.  In    all    the    mixtures    with    sittings,    even    when    the   latter 
amounted  to  66  per  cent,  of  the  whole,  the  cohesive  strength  of  the 
mortars  exceeded  its  adhesion  to  the  bricks.     The  same  i-.--uiis 
appear  to  exist  when  the  sittings  are  replaced  by  sand,  until  iho 
volume  of  the  latter  exceeds  20  per  cent,  of  the  whole,  after  which 
the  adhesion  exceeds  the  cohesion. 

6.  At  the  age  of  320  days  (and  perhaps  considerably  within  that 
period)  the  cohesive  strength  of  pure  cement  mortar  exceeds  that 
of  Croton  front  bricks.  The  converse  is  true  when  the  mortar 
contains  50  per  cent,  or  more  of  sand. 

6.  When  cement  is  to  be  used  without  sand,  as  may  be  the  case 
when  grouting  is  resorted  to,  or  when  old  walls  are  to  be  repaired 
by  injections  of  thin  paste,  there  is  no  advantage  in  having  it 
ground  to  an  impalpable  powder. 

7.  For  economy  it  is  customary  to  add  lime  to  cement  mortars, 
and  this  may  be  done  to  a  considerable  extent  when  in  positions 
where  hydraulic  activity  and  strength  are  not  required  iu  an  emi- 
nent degree. 

Slaking. —  The  volume  of  water  required  to  slake  lime  will 
vary  with  limes'from  2-5  to  3  times  the  volume  of  the  lime  (quick- 
lime), and  it  is  important  that  all  the  water  required  to  reduce 
the  lime  to  a  proper  consistency  should  be  given  to  it  before  the 
temperature  of  the  water  first  given  becomes  sensibly  elevated. 

Immediately  upon  the  lime  being  provided  \\iili  the  requisite 
volume  of  water,  it  should  be  covered,  in  order  to  confine  the  heat, 
and  it  should  not  be  stirred  while  slaking.  When  the  paste  is  re- 
quired for  grouting  or  whitewathing,  the  water  required  should  be 
given  at  once,  and  in  larger  volume  than  when  the  paste  is  re- 
quired for  mortar,  and  when  slaked  the  mass  should  be  transferred 
to  tight  casks  to  prevent  the  loss  <.f  water.  When  the  character 
of  the  limes,  as  with  those  of  hydraulic  energy,  will  not  readily 
reduce,  their  reduction,  which  is  an  indispensable  condition,  must 
be  aided  by  mechanical  means,  as  a  mortar  mill. 

The  process  here  given  is  termed  droiening.  When  the  lime  is 
retained  in  a  barrel,  or  like  instrument,  immersed  in  water,  and 
then  withdrawn  before  reduction  occurs,  it  is  termed  immersion, 
and  when  it  is  reduced  by  being  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  and 
gradually  absorbing  moisture  therefrom,  it  is  termed  air-slakrd. 

Bricks  should  be  well  wetted  before  use.  Sea  sand  should  not 
be  used  in  the  composition  of  mortar,  as  it  contains  salt  and  its 
grains  are  round,  being  worn  by  attrition,  and  consequently 
having  less  tenacity  than  sharp-edged  grains. 


LIMES,   CEMENTS,   ETC.  69 

Pine  Clay. —  The  fusibility  of  clay  arises  from  the  presence  of 
impurities,  Midi  as  lime,  iron,  and  manganese.  These  may  be 
rei.iuveil  l>y  Mo'jiinjr  tho  clay  in  hot  muri.-iiic  acid,  then  washing 
it  with  water.  Crucibles  froui  common  clay  may  be  made  in  thia 
manner. 

Pise*  is  made  of  clay  or  earth  rammed  in  layers  of  from  8  to  4 
;ii  depth.  In  moist  climates),  it  is  necessary  to  protect  the 
external  surface  of  a  wall  constructed  in  thia  manner  with  a  coat 
of  mortar. 

Asphalt  Composition.— Mineral  pitch  1  part,  bitumen  11, 
powdered  stone,  or  wood  ashes,  7  parts. 

2.  Ashes  2  parts,  clay  3  parts,  and  sand  1  part,  mixed  with  a  little 
oil,  makes  a  very  fine  and  durable  cement,  suitable  for  external  use. 

Mastic. —  Pulverized  burnt  clay  l»3  parts,  litharge  ground  very 
fine  7  parts,  mixed  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  pure  linseed  oil. 

8.  Silicious  sand  14,  pulverized  calcareous  stone  14,  litharge  2, 
and  linseed  oil  4  parts  by  weight. 

The  powders  to  be  well  dried  in  an  oven,  and  the  surface  upon 
which  it  is  to  be  applied  roust  be  saturated  with  oil. 

4.  For  Road*.—  Bitumen  16-875  parts,  asphaltum  225  parts,  oil  of 
resin  '',-25  parts,  and  sand  135 parts.  Thickness,  from  1 }  to  1$  inches. 

Asphaltum  55  llis.  and  gravel  28*7  Ibs.  will  cover  an  area  of 
10*75  square  feet. 

Notes  by  General  Gillmore,  U.  8.  A.  —  All  the  lime  neces- 
sary fur  any  required  quantity  or  Imtrh  of  mortar  should  be  slaked 
at  least  one  day  before  it  is  mixed  with  the  sand. 

All  the  witter  required  to  slake  the  lime  should  be  poured  on  at 
one  time,  the  lime  should  be  submerged,  and  the  mass  should  then 
be  covered  with  a  tarpaulin  or  canvas,  and  allowed  to  remain  un- 
disturbed for  a  period  of  21  hours. 

The  ingredients  should  be  thoroughly  mixed,  and  then  heaped 
for  use  as  required. 

Recent  experiments  have  developed  that  most  American  cements 
will  sustain,  without  any  great  loss  of  strength,  a  dose  of  lime 
paste  equal  to  that  of  the  cement  paste,  while  a  dose  equal  to  }  to 
f  the  volume  of  cement  paste  may  be  safely  added  to  any  Rosen- 
dale  cement  without  producing  any  essential  deterioration  of  the 
quality  of  the  mortar.  Neither  is  the  hydraulic  activity  of  the 
mortars  so  far  impaired  by  this  limited  addition  of  lime  paste  as 
to  render  them  unsuited  for  concrete  under  water,  or  other  sub- 
marine masonry.  By  the  use  of  lime  is  secured  the  double  advan- 
tages of  slow  setting  and  economy. 

Pointing  Mortar  is  composed  of  a  paste  of  finely-ground 
cement  and  clean  sharp  silicious  sand,  in  such  proportions  that 
the  volume  of  cement  paste  is  slightly  in  excess  of  the  volume  of 
voids  or  spaces  in  the  sand.  The  volume  of  sand  varies  from  2}  to 
2|  that  of  the  cement  paste,  or  by  weight.  1  of  cement  powder  to  3 
to  3$  of  sand.  The  mixture  should  be  made  under  shelter,  and  in 
quantities  not  exceeding  from  2  to  8  pints  at  a  time. 

Before  pointing,  the  joints  should  be  reamed,  and  in  close 
masonry  they  must  be  open  to  1  of  an  inch,  then  thoroughly  satu- 
rated with  water,  and  maintained  in  a  condition  that  they  will 


70 


LIMES,   CEMENTS,   ETC. 


neither  absorb  water  from  the  mortar  or  impart  any  to  it.  Masonry 
should  not  be  allowed  to  dry  rapidly  after  puinlinj:,  but  it  should 
be  well  driveu  in  by  the  aid  of  a  caulking  iron  and  hummer. 

In  the  pointing  of  rubble  masonry  the  same  general  directions 
are  to  be  observed. 

Notes  by  General  Totten,  U.  8.  A.— 240  Ibs.  lime  =  l 
cask,  will  make  from  7-8  to  8-15  cubic  feet  of  stiff  paste. 

308*  Ibs.  of  finely-ground  cement  will  make  from  3-7  to  3-8  cubic 
feet  of  stiff  paste  ;  7'J  to  83  Ibs.  of  cement  powder  will  make  1 
cubic  foot  of  stiff  paste. 

1  cubic  foot  of  dry  cement  powder,  measured  when  loose,  will 
measure  -78  to  -8  cubic  foot  when  packed,  ns  at  a  manufactory. 

100  yards  of  lath  and  plaster  work,  with  wagesof  masons  at  $1.75 
per  day,  and  Kockland  lime  at  $1  per  cask,  cost,  respectively  : 
8  Coats  hard  finish  work,  $25.50:  2  Coals  slipped  work,  $19.95. 

Moral  Efflorescences. —  White  alkaline  efflorescences  upon 
the  surface  of  brick  walls  laid  in  mortar,  of  which  natural  hy- 
draulic lime  or  cement  is  the  basis. 

The  crystallization  of  these  salts  within  the  pores  of  bricks,  into 
which  they  have  been  absorbed  from  the  mortar,  causes  disinte- 
gration. 

Ashphalt  Flooring. —  8  Ibs.  of  composition  will  cover  1  sup. 
foot,  f  inch  thick. 

Plastering. — 1  bushel,  or  1 J  cubic  foot  of  cement,  mortar,  etc., 
will  cover  1J  square  rods  }  inch  thick.  75  volumes  are  required 
upon  brick  work  for  70  upon  laths. 

Cost  of  Masonry,  of  various  Kinds,  per  Cubic  Yard,  and 

the  Volume  of  Mortar  required  for  each. 

GEN.  UILLMORE,  U.  8.  A. 


3s 

CM 

t. 

MorUr. 

1 

P 

«1 

Si 

f  5 

It! 

1 

! 

t 

Rough,  in  nibble  or  gravel,  from  J^ 

Cu.  Ft. 
10*8 

Bbli. 
•665 

Bbb. 

1-22 

$Cu. 
90 

SCu. 

4.10 

tcu. 
6. 

Blocks,    large    and    small,    not     in 
courses;  joints   liaimu'T-(lressed.._ 
h.-aiii-rx  :mil  .stretchers 
dovetailed;  hammer-dressed;  beds 
and  joints  laid  close 

8-1 

•423 
•06 

•92 

•11 

62 
08 

7. 
9 

7.63 
908 

Ordinary  ;  courses  20  to  32  in  rise  
Onlinury  ;  courses  12  to  20  in  rise.-... 
Hrirk  

1-5 

2- 
8" 

•08 
1-05 
•42 

•17 
•22 
•9 

12 
16 
66 

5.70 
2.19 

5  70 

610 

11* 

"54 

r?5 

1  21 

2.19 

320 

9- 

•41 

roe 

r.". 

1.56 

221 

"          inferior 

8* 

•37 

•97 

•  »! 

1  45 

205 

Rubble,  without  mortar  

Cost  of  materials  assumed  as  follows:  Cement,  $1.25  per  barrel; 
Lime,  $1;  Bricks,  $4.25  per  M;  Sand  and  Gravel,  bO  cents  per 
ton  ;  Granite  spalls,  55  cents  per  cubic  yard  ;  Labor,  $1  per  day. 

»  300  Ibs.  net  is  the  standard  barrel,  but  it  usually  weighs  308  Ibs. 


71 


ARTIFICERS'  RULES  AND  TABLES, 


For  Computing  the  Work  of  Bricklayers,  Well  Diggers, 
Masons,  Carpenters  and  Joiners,  Slaters,  Plasterers, 
Painters,  Glaziers,  Pavers,  and  Plumbers. 

MEASUREMENT  OF  BRICKLAYERS'  WORK. 

Brickwork  is  estimated  at  the  rate  of  a  number  of  bricks  in 
thickness,  estimating  a  brick  at  4  inches  thick.  The  dimensions 
of  a  building  are  usually  taken  by  measuring  half  round  on  the 
outside,  and  half  round  on  the  inside;  the  sum  of  these  two  gives 
the  compass  of  the  wall,  — to  be  multiplied  by  the  height,  for  the 
content  of  the  materials.  Chimneys  are  by  pome  measured  as  if 
they  were  solid,  deducting  only  the  vacuity  from  the  hearth  to  the 
mantle,  on  account  of  the  trouble  of  them.  And  by  other*  they 
are  girt  or  measured  round  for  their  breadth,  and  the  height  of 
the  story  is  their  height,  taking  the  depth  of  the  jambs  for  their 
thickness.  And  in  this  case,  no  deduction  is  made  for  the  vacuity 
from  the  floor  to  the  mantle-tree,  because  of  the  gathering  of  the 
breast  and  wings,  to  make  room  for  the  hearth  in  the  next  story. 
To  measure  the  chimney  shafts,  which  appear  above  the  building, 
gird  them  about  with  a  line  for  the  breadth,  to  multiply  by  their 
height;  and  account  their  thickness  half  a  brick  more  than  it 
really  is,  in  consideration  of  the  plastering  and  scaffolding.  All 
windows,  doors,  etc.,  are  to  be  deducted  out  of  the  contents  of  the 
walls  in  which  they  are  placed.  But  this  deduction  is  made  only 
with  regard  to  materials;  for  the  whole  meat-urc  is  taken  for 
workmanship,  and  that  all  outside  measure  too,  namely,  measuring 
quite  round  the  outside  of  the  building,  being  in  consideration  of 
the  trouble  of  the  returns  or  angles.  There  are  also  some  other 
allowances,  such  as  double  measure  for  feathered  gable  ends,  etc. 
EXAMPLE. — The  end  wall  of  a  house  is  28  feet  long,  and  87  feet 
high  to  the  eaves:  15  feet  high  is  four  bricks  or  1(3  inches  thick, 
•other  12  feet  is  three  bricks  or  12  inches  thick,  and  the  remaining 
10  feet  is  two  bricks  or  8  inches  thick ;  above  which  is  a  trian- 
gular gable  12  feet  high  and  one  brick  or  4  inches  in  thickness. 
What  number  of  bricks  are  there  in  the  said  wall?  <4iu. 2d,b20. 
ThickMHi 

28X15=420X4=1680  contents  of  1st  story. 

28X12=336x3=1008        ««         ««  2d      " 

28X10=280x2=  660        «         "  8d      " 
-7-2=  6X28=168x1=  168       «        "  gable. 

8416    square  feet  area  of  whole  wall. 
7}  bricks  to  square  foot. 

23,912        By  the  table. 
1,708  8000  suprfi.  ft.  =  22,500  bricks 

400     "         "=    8,000      " 

Answer,      25,620  bricks.     10     "        «=        75     •« 
6     "        »=        45      " 

3416    "        "  =26, 620  bricks 


72      MEASUREMENT    OF    BRICK  WORK,  ETC. 

A  Table  by  which  to  ascertain  the  Number  of  Bricks 
necessary  to  Construct  any  piece  of  Building,  from  a 
four-inch  Wall  to  twenty-four  inches  in  thickness. 

The  utility  of  the  Table  can  be  seen  by  the  following  Example. 
Required  the  number  of  bricks  to  build  a  wall  of  12  inches  thick- 
ness, and  containing  au  area  of  6,437  square  feet. 


Square  feet  1000 
X  6 


22,500  bricks  — See  table. 


6000=  135,000 

400  =      9,000 

80  =          675 

7=         158 


NOTE.—  7 J  bricks, 
equal  one  superficial  foot. 


6,437  =  144,833  bricks. 


Superficial 
feet  of 
Wall 

Number  of  Bricks  to  Thickness  of 

4-lnch. 

8-inch. 

12-inch. 

16-Inch. 

20-inch. 

24-inch. 

1 

8 

15 

23 

30 

38 

45 

2 

15 

80 

45 

60 

75 

90 

3 

23 

45 

68 

90 

113 

135 

4 

80 

CO 

90 

120 

150 

180 

5 

38 

75 

113 

150 

188 

225 

6 

45 

90 

135 

180 

225 

270 

7 

53 

105 

158 

210 

263 

815 

8 

60 

120 

180 

240 

800 

360 

9 

68 

135 

203 

270 

838 

405 

10 

75 

150 

225 

300 

875 

450 

20 

160 

800 

450 

600 

760 

900 

80 

225 

450 

675 

900 

1136 

1350 

40 

800 

600 

900 

1200 

1500 

1800 

50 

876 

750 

1125 

1500 

1875 

2250 

60 

450 

900 

1350 

1800 

2250 

2700 

70 

625 

1050 

1575 

2100 

2626 

3150 

80 

600 

1200 

1800 

2400 

3000 

:;.,IM) 

90 

675 

1350 

2025 

2700 

3376 

4050 

100 

750 

1500 

2250 

8000 

3750 

4500 

200 

1500 

8000 

4500 

6000 

7800 

9000 

800 

2250 

4500 

6750 

9000 

11250 

13500 

400 

3000 

6000 

9000 

12000 

15000 

18000 

500 

3750 

7500 

11250 

15000 

18750 

22500 

600 

4500 

9000 

13500 

18000 

22500 

27000 

700 

6250 

10500 

15750 

21000 

26250 

31500 

800 

6000 

12000 

18000 

24000 

30000 

36000 

900 

6750 

13500 

20250 

27000 

33760 

40500 

1000 

7500 

15000 

22500 

30000 

37500 

45000 

MEASUREMENT    OP    WELLS,   ETC.  73 

MEASUREMENT  OF  WELLS  AND  CISTERNS. 

There  are  two  methods  of  estimating  the  value  of  excavating. 
It  may  be  done  by  allowing  so  much  a  day  for  every  man's  work, 
or  so  much  per  cubic  foot,  or  yard,  for  all  that  is  excavated. 

Well  Digging.— Suppose  a  well  is  40  feet  deep,  and  5  feet  in 
diameter,  required  the  number  of  cubic  feet,  or  yards? 

6  X  6  =  26  X  -7861  =  19-635  X  40  =  786-4  cubic  feet. 
Suppose  a  well  to  be  4  feet  9  inches  diameter,  and  16}  feet  from 
the  bottom  to  the  surface  of  the  water;  how  many  gallons  are 
therein  contained? 

4-75'  X  16-5  X5-875  =  2187-162  gallons. 

Again,  suppose  the  well's  diameter  the  same,  and  its  entire  depth 
86  feet ;  required  the  quantity  in  cubic  yards  of  material  exca- 
vated in  its  formation. 

4-76»  X  86  X  '02909  =  22-972  cubic  yards. 

A  cylindrical  piece  of  lead  is  required  7}  inches  diameter,  and 
1G8  Ibs.  in  weight ;  what  must  be  its  length  in  inches  ? 

7-6»  X  '3223  =  18,  and  168  ~  18  =  9-3  inches. 

Digging  for  Foundations,  etc.— To  find  the  cubical  quantity 
in  a  trench,  or  an  excavated  area,  the  length,  width  and  depth 
must  be  multiplied  together.  These  are  usually  givon  in  feet,  and 
therefore,  to  reduce  the  amount  into  cubic  yards  it  must  be  divided 
by  27. 

Suppose  a  trench  is  40  feet  long,  3  feet  wide,  and  3  feet  deep, 
required  the  number  of  cubic  feet,  or  yards  T 

40  X  3  =  120  X  3  =  860  feet  -j-  27  =  13$  yards. 

24  cubic  feet  of  sand,  17  ditto  clay,  18  ditto  earth,  equal  one  ton. 
1  cubic  yard  of  earth  or  gravel,  before  digging,  will  occupy 
about  1}  cubic  yards  when  dug. 

MEASUREMENT  OF  MASONS'  WORK. 

To  masonry  belongs  all  sorts  of  stone-work ;  and  the  measure 
made  use  of  is  a  foot,  either  superficial  or  solid. 

Walls,  columns,  blocks  of  stone  or  marble,  etc.,  are 
measured  by  the  cubic  foot;  and  pavement*,  slabs,  chimney-pieces, 
etc.,  by  the  superficial  or  square  foot.  Cubic  or  solid  measure  is 
used  for  the  materials,  and  square  measure  for  the  workmanship. 
In  the  solid  measure,  the  true  length,  breadth  and  thickness  are 
taken,  and  multiplied  continually  together.  In  the  superficial, 
there  must  be  taken  the  length  and  breadth  of  every  part  of  the 
projection,  which  is  seen  without  the  general  upright  face  of  the 
building. 

EXAMPLE. —  In  a  chimney-piece,  suppose  the  length  of  the  man- 
tle aud  slab  each  4  feet  6  inches ;  breadth  of  both  together  3  feet 


74  MEASUREMENT    OP 

2  inches;  lenpth  of  each  jamb  4  feet  4  inches;  breadth  of  both 
together  1  foot  9  inches.  Required  the  superficial  content. —  Ant. 
21  feet  10  inches. 

4  ft.  6  in.  X  3  ft.  2  in.  =  14  ft.  3  in.  1  „.  f       lfl  .     . 
4  "   4  "    V  1  "   9  "   7  "   7  "    i       Ieei  *•"  incnes. 

Rubble  Walls  (unhewn  stone)  are  commonly  measured  by  the 
perch,  which  is  16J  feet  long,  1  foot  deep,  and  1J  foot  thick, 
equivalent  to  24$  cubic  feet.  25  cubic  feet  is  sometimes  allowed 
to  the  perch,  in  measuring  stone  before  it  is  laid,  and  22  after  it 
is  laid  in  the  wall.  This  species  of  work  is  of  two  kinds,  coursed 
and  uncuursed;  in  the  former  the  stones  are  gauged  and  dressed 
by  tue  hammer,  and  the  masonry  laid  in  horizontal  courses,  but 
not  necessarily  confined  to  the  same  height.  The  uncoursed  rub- 
ble wall  is  formed  by  laying  the  stones  in  the  wall  as  they  come 
to  hand,  without  any  previous  gauging  or  working. 

27  cubic  feet  of  Mortar  require  for  its  preparation  9  bushels 
of  lime  and  1  cubic  foot  of  sand. 

Lime  and  sand  lessen  about  one-third  in  bulk  when  made 
into  mortar;  likewise  cement  and  sand. 

Lime,  or  cement  and  sand,  to  make  mortar,  require  as  much 
water  as  is  equal  to  one-third  of  their  bulk. 

All  Sandstones  ought  to  be  placed  on  their  natural  beds ;  from 
inattention  to  this  circumstance,  the  stones  often  split  off  at  the 
joints,  and  the  position  of  the  lamina  much  sooner  admits  of  the 
destructive  action  of  air  and  water. 

The  heaviest  stones  are  most  suited  for  ducks  and  harbors, 
breakwaters  to  bridges,  etc. 

Granite  is  the  most  durable  species  of  stone  yet  known  for  the 
purposes  of  building.  It  varies  in  weight  according  to  quality; 
the  heaviest  is  the  most  durable. 


MEASUREMENT    OF   CARPENTERS'    AND   JOIN- 
ERS' WORK. 

To  this  branch  belongs  all  the  woodwork  of  a  house,  such  as 
flooring,  partitioning,  roofing,  etc.  Large  and  plain  articles  are 
usually  measured  by  the  square  foot  or  yard,  etc.,  but  enriched 
mouldings,  and  some  other  articles,  are  often  estimated  by  run- 
ning or  lineal  measures,  and  some  things  are  rated  by  the  piece. 

All  Joints,  Girders,  and  in  fact  all  the  parts  of  naked  flooring, 
are  measured  by  the  cube,  and  their  quantities  are  found  by  mul- 
tiplying the  length  by  the  breadth,  and  the  product  by  the  depth. 
The  same  rule  applies  to  the  measurement  of  all  the  timbers  of  a 
roof,  and  also  the  framed  timbers  used  in  the  construction  of 
partitions. 

Flooring,  that  is  to  say,  the  boards  which  cover  the  naked  floor- 
ing, is  measured  by  the  square.  The  dimensions  nre  taken  from 
wall  to  wall,  and  the  product  is  divided  by  100,  which  gives  the 


CARPENTERS'  AND  JOINERS'  WORK.    75 

number  of  squares ;  but  deductions  must  be  made  for  staircases 
and  chimneys. 

In  measuring  of  Joists,  it  is  to  be  observed  that  only  one  of  (heir 
dimensions  is  the  same  with  that  of  the  floor;  for  the  other  exceeds 
the  length  of  the  room  by  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  and  one-third 
of  the  same,  because  each  end  is  let  into  the  wall  about  two-thirds 
of  its  thickness. 

No  deductions  are  made  for  Hearths  on  account  of  the  addi- 
tional trouble  and  waste  of  materials. 

Partitions  are  measured  from  wall  to  wall  for  one  dimension, 
and  from  floor  to  floor,  as  far  as  they  extend,  for  the  other. 

No  deduction  is  made  for  Doorways  on  account  of  the  trouble 
of  framing  them. 

In  measuring  of  Joiners'  work,  the  string  is  made  to  ply  close 
to  every  part  of  the  work  over  which  it  passes. 

The  measure  for  centring  for  Cellars  is  found  by  ranking  a  string 
pass  over  the  surface  of  the  arch  for  the  breadth,  and  taking  the 
length  of  the  cellar  for  the  length;  but  in  groin  centring,  it  is 
usual  to  allow  double  measure,  ou  account  of  their  extraordinary 
trouble. 

In  Roofing,  the  length  of  the  house  in  the  inside,  together  with 
two-thirds  of  the  thickness  of  one  gable,  is  to  be  considered  as  the 
length ;  and  the  breadth  is  equal  to  double  the  length  of  a  string 
which  is  stretched  from  the  ridge  down  the  rafter,  and  along  the 
eaves-board,  till  it  meets  with  the  top  of  the  wall. 

For  Staircases,  take  the  breadth  of  all  the  steps,  by  making  a 
line  ply  close  over  them,  from  the  top  to  the  bottom,  and  multiply  the 
length  of  this  line  by  the  length  of  a  step,  for  the  whole  area. —  By 
the  length  of  a  step  is  meant  the  length  of  the  front  and  the  returns 
at  the  two  ends  ;  and  .by  the  breadth,  is  to  be  understood  the  girth 
of  its  two  outer  surfaces,  or  the  tread  and  riser. 

For  the  Balustrade,  take  the  whole  length  of  the  upper  part  of 
the  handrail,  and  girt  over  its  end  till  it  meets  the  top  of  the  newel 
post,  for  the  length  ;  and  twice  the  length  of  the  baluster  upon  the 
landing,  with  the  girth  of  the  handrail  for  the  breadth. 

For  Wainscoting,  take  the  compass  of  the  room  for  the  length ; 
and  the  height  from  the  floor  to  the  ceiling,  making  the  string  ply 
close  into  all  the  mouldings,  for  the  breadth.  Out  of  this  must  be 
made  deductions  for  windows,  doors,  chimneys,  etc.,  but  work- 
manship is  counted  for  the  whole,  on  account  of  the  extraordinary 
trouble. 

For  Doors,  it  is  usual  to  allow  for  their  thickness,  by  adding  it 
to  both  dimensions  of  length  and  breadth,  and  then  to  multiply 
them  together  for  the  area.  If  the  door  be  panelled  on  both  sides, 
take  double  its  measure  for  the  workmanship ;  but  if  the  one  side 
only  be  panelled,  take  the  area  and  its  half  for  the  workmanship. 
For  the  surrounding  architrave,  gird  it  about  the  outermost  parts 
for  its  length ;  and  measure  over  it,  as  far  as  it  can  be  seen  when 
the  door  is  open,  for  the  breadth. 

Window-shutters,  bases,  etc.,  are  measured  in  the  same 
manner. 


76      MEASUREMENT    OF    SLATERS*   WORK. 

In  the  measuring  of  Roofing  for  workmanship  alone,  holes  for 
chinmey-shiifts  and  sky-lights  are  generally  deducted.  But  in 
measuring  for  work  and  materials,  they  commonly  measure  in  all 
sky-lights,  lutheran-lights,  and  holes  for  the  chimney-shafts,  on 
account  of  their  trouble  and  waste  of  materials. 

The  Doors  and  Shutters,  being  worked  on  both  sides,  are 
reckoned  work  and  half  work. 

Hemlock  and  Pine  Shingles  are  generally  18  inches  long, 
and  of  the  average  width  of  4  inches.  When  nailed  to  the  roof  6 
inches  are  generally  left  out  to  the  weather,  and  6  shingles  are 
therefore  required  to  a  square  foot.  Cedar  and  Cyprett  Shingles 
are  generally  20  inches  long  and  C  inches  wide,  and  therefore  a 
less  number  are  required  for  a  "square."  On  account  of  waste  and 
defects,  1000  shinnies  should  be  allowed  to  a  square. 

Two  4-penny  Nails  are  allowed  to  each  shingle,  equal  to  1200 
to  a  square. 

The  weight  of  a  square  of  Partitioning  may  be  estimated  at 
from  1500  to  2000  Ibs. ;  a  square  of  single-joisted  flooring,  at  from 
1200  to  2000  Ibs. ;  a  square  of  framed  flooring,  at  from  2700  to 
4500  Ibs.;  a  square  of  deafening,  at  about  1600  Ibs.  100  superficial 
feet  make  one  square  of  boarding,  flooring,  etc. 

In  selecting  Timber,  avoid  spongy  heart,  porous  grain,  and  dead 
knots;  choose  the  brightest  in  color,  and  where  the  strong  red 
grain  appears  to  rise  on  the  surface. 


Number  of  American   Iron    Machine  -  Cut   Nails  in  a 
Pound  (by  count). 


Size. 

Number. 

Size. 

Number. 

Size. 

Number. 

3  penny  ... 

408 

6  penny. 

156 

12  penny. 

52 

275 

100 

20      "     . 

..   32 

6      " 

•2  '7 

10      " 

66 

80      " 

n 

MEASUREMENT  OF  SLATERS'  WORK. 

In  these  articles,  the  content  of  a  roof  is  found  by  multiplying 
the  length  of  the  ridge  by  the  girth  over  from  eaves  to  eaves ; 
making  allowance  in  this  girth  for  the  double  row  of  slates  at  the 
bottom,  or  for  how  much  one  row  of  slates  is  laid  over  another. 
When  the  roof  is  of  a  true  pitch,  that  is.  forming  a  right  angle 
at  top,  then  the  breadth  of  the  building,  with  its  half  added,  i-^  the 
girth  over  both  sides.  In  angles  formed  in  a  roof,  running  from 
the  ridge  to  the  eaves,  when  the  angle  bends  inwards,  it  is  called  a 
valley  ;  but  when  outwards,  it  is  called  a  hip.  It  is  not  usual  to 
make  deductions  for  chimney-shafts,  sky-lights  or  other  openings. 


IMPORTED    SLATES. 


77 


Slates. 
[From  the  Quarries  of  Rutland  County,  Vermont.] 


i  Inch  Cora. 

1  Inoh  Coyer. 

3  Inch  COT*T. 

IlDChCoTCT. 

No.  of  SIMM 

No.  of  SUM* 

No.  of  SIMM 

ICo.  of  SIMM 

BliMof  S1M«>. 

-A-ar 

tolfcoSaow* 

r   i        ,. 

suMorsuiM. 

.,     •:  |    -        .r* 

or  IM  Feet. 

24  by  16 
24  by  14 

86 
98 

84 
93} 

18  by  11 
18  by  10 

174J 
192 

163} 
180 

24  by  12 

114 

109 

18  by    9 

213 

200 

22  by  14 

108 

102J 

16  by  12 

184 

22  by  12 

126 

120 

16  bv  10 

221} 

22  by  10 

162 

144 

16  by    9 

246 

20  by  14 
20  by  12 

129 
143 

im 

1334 

16  by    8 
14  by  10 

277 
MS 

267 
240 

20  by  11 

146 

L46J 

14  by    9 

IN 

U61 

20  by  10 

169J 

160 

14  by    8 

827 

800 

18  by  12 

160 

160 

14  by    7 

874 

848 

"  Each  Slate  is  8  inches  BOHD  or  COVER.  The  rule  for  measur- 
ing Slating  is,  to  add  one  foot  for  all  hips  and  valleys.  No  deduc- 
tion is  made  for  Lutheran  windows,  sky-lights  or  chimneys,  except 
they  are  of  unusual  size;  then  one-half  is  deducted." 

Imported  Slates. 


NamwofShtML 

SUes. 

Numlicr  of  Super- 
of  1200  will  corer. 

Weight  of  each 
IT  of  1300 
Slatet. 

Inches.   Inches. 
24  by  12 

1100 

60    owt 

Marchionesses  

22    «     12 

1000 

65        • 

20    •    10 

760 

40        ' 

Viscountesses  

18    '     10 
16    '     10 

86 
81        ' 

16    '      8 

SMI 

25       • 

„ 

14    '      8 

400 

22       « 

,4 

12    '      8 

8331 

181      • 

Plantations  

14    •     12 
18    '     10 

600 
fttl 

88*      • 
25       « 

,, 

12   •    10 

41  A] 

23        ' 

Doubles 

18   '      7 

...,,,-. 

171         « 

•«      small  

11    •«     7 

•'.," 

141     " 

School       Slates       for 
Blackboards  

6  ft.  by  2J  ft. 
6  feet  by  3  ft. 

78     PLASTERERS'  AND  PAVERS'  WORK. 
MEASUREMENT  OF  PLASTERERS'  "WORK. 

Plasterers'  work  is  of  two  kinds,  namely,  ceiling  —  which  is 
plastering  upon  laths  —  and  rendering,  which  is  plastering  upon 
walls,  which  are  measured  separately. 

The  contents  are  estimated  either  by  the  foot  or  yard,  or  square 
of  100  feet.  Enriched  mouldings,  etc.,  are  rated  by  running  or 
lineal  measure.  One  foot  extra  is  allowed  for  each  mitre. 

One-half  of  the  openings,  windows,  doors,  etc.,  allowed  to  com- 
pensate for  trouble  of  finishing  returns  at  top  and  sides. 

Cornices  and  mouldings,  if  12  inches  or  more  in  girt,  are  some- 
times estimated  by  the  square  foot;  if  less  than  12  inches,  they 
are  usually  measured  by  the  lineal  foot. 

1  bushel  of  cement  will  cover  I  If  square  yards  at  1  inch  in 
thickness. 

1  bushel  of  cement  will  cover  1}  square  yards  at  jths  of  an 
inch  in  thickness. 

1  bushel  of  cement  will  coyer  2}  square  yards  at  }  of  an  inch 
in  thickness. 

1  bushel  of  cement  and  1  of  sand  will  cover  2}  square  yards  at 
1  inch  in  thickness. 

1  bushel  of  cement  and  1  of  sand  will  cover  3  square  yards  at 
fths  of  an  inch  in  thickness. 

1  bushel  of  cement  and  1  of  sand  will  cover  4$  square  yards  at 
i  of  an  inch  in  thickness. 

1  bushel  of  cement  and  2  of  sand  will  cover  3J  square  yards  at 
1  inch  in  thickness. 

1  bushel  of  cement  and  2  of  sand  will  cover  4}  square  yards  at 
£ths  of  an  inch  in  thickness. 

1  bushel  of  cement  and  2  of  sand  will  cover  G  j  square  yards  at 
}  of  an  inch  in  thickness. 

1  cut.  of  mastic  and  1  gallon  of  oil  will  cover  1}  yards  at  },  or 
2}  at  }  inch. 

1  cubic  yard  of  lime,  2  yards  of  road  or  drift  sand,  and  ."•  bushels 
of  hair,  will  cover  75  yards  of  render  and  »et  on  brick,  and  70  yards 
on  lath,  or  Co  yards  platter,  or  render,  2  eoatt  and  tet  on  brick,  and 
60  yards  on  lath;  floated  work  will  require  about  the  same  as  2 
coats  and  set. 

Laths  are  1J  to  1J  inches  by  4  feet  in  length,  and  are  usually 
set  Jth  of  an  inch  apart.  A  bundle  contains  100.  1  bundle  of 
laths  and  500  nails  cover  about  4}  yards. 


MEASUREMENT  OP  PAVERS'  WORK. 

Pavers'  work  is  done  by  the  square  yard  ;  and  the  content  is 
found  by  multiplying  the  length  by  the  breadth.  Grading  for 
paving  is  charged  by  the  day. 


GLAZIERS'  AND  PAINTERS'  WORK.      79 


MEASUREMENT   OF  GLAZIERS'   WORK. 

Glaziers'  work  is  sometimes  measured  by  the  square  foot,  some- 
times by  the  piece,  or  at  so  much  per  light;  except  where  the 
glass  is  set  in  metallic  frames,  when  the  charge  is  by  the  foot.  ID 
estimating  by  the  square  foot,  it  is  customary  to  include  the  whole 
sash.  Circular  or  oval  windows  are  measured  as  if  they  were 
square. 

Table  showing  the  Size  and  Number  of  Lights  to  the 
10O  Square  Feet. 


Sice. 

Light*. 

SUe. 

Light.. 

Sire. 

Light*. 

Sin. 

LighU. 

6  by  8 

800 

12  by  14 

M 

14  by  22 

47 

20  by  20 

86 

7  by  9 

229 

12  by  15 

80 

14  by  24 

48 

20  by  22 

83 

8  by  10 

180 

12  by  16 

76 

15  by  16 

64 

ttfcg  14 

80 

8  by  11 

164 

12  by  17 

71 

15  by  16 

60 

20  by  25 

29 

8  by  12 

160 

12  by  18 

67 

15  by  18 

63 

20  by  26 

28 

9  by  10 

160 

12  by  19 

63 

15  by  20 

48 

20  by  28 

26 

9  by  11 

146 

12  by  20 

60 

15  by  21 

46 

21  by  27 

26 

9  by  12 

183 

12  by  21 

67 

15  by  22 

44 

22  by  24 

27 

9  by  13 

123 

12  by  22 

66 

15  by  24 

40 

22  by  26 

36 

9  by  14 

114 

12  by  23 

62 

16  by  16 

66 

22  by  28 

28 

9  by  16 

100 

12  by  24 

60 

16  by  17 

68 

24  by  28 

21 

10  by  10 

144 

13  by  14 

79 

16  by  18 

60 

24  by  30 

20 

10  by  12 

120 

13  by  15 

74 

16  by  20 

46 

24  by  82 

19 

10  by  13 

111 

13  by  16 

69 

16  by  21 

48 

25  by  80 

19 

10  by  14 

103 

18  by  17 

66 

16  by  22 

41 

M  b]  M 

16 

10  by  16 

96 

13  by  18 

61 

16  by  24 

38 

28  by  34 

16 

10  by  16 

90 

13  by  19 

68 

17  by  17 

60 

30  by  40 

12 

10  by  17 

85 

13  by  20 

66 

17  by  18 

47 

31  by  36 

18 

10  by  18 

80 

13  by  21 

63 

17  by  20 

42 

31  by  40 

12 

11  by  11 

119 

13  by  22 

60 

17  by  22 

38 

81  by  42 

12 

11  by  12 

109 

13  by  24 

46 

17  by  24 

86 

32  by  42 

10 

11  by  13 

101 

14  by  14 

73 

18  by  18 

44 

32  by  44 

10 

11  by  14 

94 

14  by  15 

68 

18  by  20 

40 

33  by  46 

10 

11  by  15 

87 

14  by  16 

64 

18  by  22 

86 

34  by  46 

9 

11  by  16 

82 

14  by  17 

60 

18  by  24 

83 

30  by  62 

9 

Ilhyl7 

77 

14  by  18 

67 

19  by  19 

40 

32  by  60 

8 

11  by  18 

78 

14  by  19 

64 

19  by  20 

88 

83  by  66 

8 

12hyl2 

100 

14  by  20 

61 

19  by  22 

84 

36  by  58 

7 

12  by  13 

92 

14  by  21 

49 

19  by  24 

32 

38  by  58 

7 

MEASUREMENT  OF  PAINTERS'  WORK. 

Painters'  work  is  computed  in  square  yards.  Every  part  is 
measured  where  the  color  lies;  the  measuring  line  is  forced  into 
all  the  mouldings  and  corners. 


80 


SEWERS. 


Cornices,  mouldings,  narrow  skirtings,  reveals  to  doors  and 
windows,  and  generally  all  work  not  more  than  nine  inches  wide, 
are  valued  by  their  length.  Sash-frames  are  charged  so  much 
each  according  to  their  size,  and  the  squares  so  much  a  dozen. 
Mouldings  cut  in  are  charged  by  the  foot  run,  and  the  workman 
always  receives  an  extra  price  for  party-colors.  Writing  is  charged 
by  the  inch,  and  the  price  given  is  regulated  by  the  skill  and 
manner  in  which  the  work  is  executed;,  the  same  is  true  of  imi- 
tations and  marbling.  The  price  of  painting  varies  exceedingly, 
some  colors  being  more  expensive  and  requiring  much  more  labor 
than  others.  In  measuring  open  railing,  it  is  customary  to  take 
it  as  flat  work,  which  pays  for  the  extra  labor;  and  as  the  rails 
are  painted  on  all  sides,  the  two  surfaces  are  taken.  It  is  cus- 
tomary to  allow  all  edges  and  sinkings. 


MEASUREMENT  OF  PLUMBERS'  WORK. 

Plumbers'  work  is  rated  at  so  much  a  pound,  or  else  by  the 
hundredweight  of  112  pounds.  Sheet  lead,  used  in  roofing, 
guttering,  etc.,  is  from  7  to  12  pounds  to  the  square  foot.  And  a 
pipe  of  an  inch  bore  is  commonly  from  6  to  13  pounds  to  the 
yard  in  length.—  [See  Table,  "  Weight  of  Lead  Pipe  per  Foot."} 


SEWERS. 


Sewers  are  classed  as  Drains,  Sewers,  and  Culverts. 

Drains  are  the  small  courses,  as  from  one  or  more  locations 
leading  to  a  sewer. 

Sewers  are  the  courses  from  a  series  of  locations. 
Culverts  are  the  courses  that  receive  the  discharge  of  sewers. 

The  greatest  fall  of  rain  is  2  inches  per  hour  =  64308-6  gallons 
per  acre. 


Drainage  of  Lands  by  Pipes. 


Soil.. 

of  Pi  pet. 

Distance 
apart. 

Boll*. 

*"?£. 

Diiunoe 
apart. 

Ft.    In. 

Feet. 

Ft      In. 

Fret. 

Coarse  gravel  sand  
Light  sand  with  gravel 
Light  loam  
Loam  with  clay  

4    6 
4 
3    6 
8    2 

60 
50 
S3 
21 

Loam  with  gravel... 
Sandy  loam  
Soft  clay  
Stiff  clay  

3    9 
2    9 
2    6 

27 
40 
21 
15 

SEWERS. 


81 


Sewers. 


Circular.     65  y/z  X  2/=  t>,  and  »  X  a  =  V ;  x  repruenting  area 
of  sewer  -7-  <A<  wetted  perimeter,  f  inclination  of  do.  per  mile,  and  v 
velocity  of  flow,  in  feet  per  minute;  a  area  of  flow  in  square  feet,  and 
V  volume  of  discharge  in  cubic  feet  per  minute. 
D  2D 


-  =  w,  -^-  =  w>,  and  D  =  1 


D  representing  height  of 


Fig.  42. 


Sfwer,  w  and  w'  width  at  bottom  and  top,  and  r  radius  of  sides. 

In  culverts  less  than  6  feet  in  depth,*  the 
brick-work  should  be  9  inches  thick.  When 
they  are  above  6  feet  and  less  than  9  feet,  it 
should  be  14  inches  thick. 

If  the  diameter  of  top  arch  =  1,  the  diameter 
of  inverted  arch  =  -5,  and  the  total  depth  =  the 
sum  of  the  two  diameters,  or  1-5,  then  the 
radius  of  the  arcs  which  are  tangential  to  the 
top,  and  inverted,  will  be  1*5. 

From  this  any  two  of  the  elements  can  be 
deduced,  one  being  known. 

Oval.  Top  and  bottom*  should  be  of  equal  diameters.  The 
diameter  -76  depth  of  culvert;  the  intersections  of  the  top  and 
bottom  circles  form  the  centres  for  striking  the  courses  connecting 
the  top  and  bottom  circles. 

The  inclination  of  sewers  should  not  be  less  than  1  foot  in  240. 

Dimensions,  Areas,  and   Volume  of  Work   per  Lineal 
Foot  of  Egg-shaped  Sewers  of  different  Dimension*. 


Internal  Dimeniiom. 


Depth. 

Diameter  of 
Top  Arch. 

Diameter  of 
Inrert. 

Area. 

W 

$££ 

"AS* 

Feel. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Sq.  Feet. 

Cab.  Feet. 

Cab.  Feet. 

Cab.  Feet. 

*i 

1-5 

•76 

253 

2-81 

3- 

2- 

1- 

4-5 

8-56 



ti 

2-6 
3- 
3-6 

1-25 
1-5 
1-76 

7-03 
10-12 
13-78 

4-31 
6-06 
6-81 

9-56 
10-87 
1275 



6- 

4- 

2- 

18- 

6-56 

14-25 

6-| 

4-6 

2-25 

22-78 

7-81 

15-75 

24-75 

7-J 

6- 

2-6 

28-12 

17-06 

27- 

8-J 

6-5 

2-75 

84-03 



18- 

28-41 

9- 

6- 

8- 

40-5 



19-69 

30-94 

In  laying  large  sewers  through  quicksands,  cast-iron  inverts 
are  sometimes  employed,  and  with  success,  to  connect  the  founda- 
tion of  the  whole  work  together. 

*  Internal  dimensions. 


82 


ARCHES    AND    ABUTMENTS. 


Area  of  Surface  from  •which  Circular  Sewers  •will  dis- 
charge "Water  equal  in  Volume  to  One  Inch  in  Depth 
upon  surface  per  Hour,  including  ordinary  City  Drain- 
age. 


Inclination 
in  Feet 

Diameter  of  Sewen  in  Feet. 

2 

2^ 

8 

4 

6 

6 

Area. 

Area. 

Area. 

Area. 

Area. 

Area. 

None  

38} 

67* 

120 

277 

670 

loao 

1  in  480  

48 

76 

136 

308 

630 

1117 

1  in  240  

60 

87 

166 

355 

735 

1318 

1  in  160  

63 

118 

203 

460 

950 

1  in  120  

78 

143 

267 

690 

1200 

2180 

1  in  80  

90 

166 

295 

670 

1188 

2486 

1  in  60  

125 

182 

818 

730 

1500 

2676 

ARCHES  AND  ABUTMENTS. 

Approximate  Rules  and  Tables  for  the  Depth  of  Arches 
and  Thickness  of  Abutments. 

C  i/  r  =  D.  C  representing  coefficient,  r  radius  of  arch  at  crown,  t 
thickness  of  abutment,  h  height  of  abutment  to  tpring,  and  D  depth  of 
crown  in  feet. 

In  single  arches,  Stone  C  =  -3,  Brick  -4,  and  Rubble  -45. 

Depths  required  for  the  Crowns  of  Arches. 


s* 


r 

8 
9 


Feet. 

•42 
•47 
•52 
•56 
•6 
•64 
•67 
•71 
•74 
•8 
•85 
•9 


reel 
•56 
•63 
•69 
•75 
•8 
•.-,-, 
•9 
•94 
•98 
1-06 
1-13 
1-2 


Fret. 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 


•95 
I- 

1-04 

1-06 
1-12 
1-16 
1-2 
1-23 
1-J7 
1-31 
1-34 
1-41 


1-38 
144 
1-5 

I-'.-. 
1-6 
1  •'..-, 
1-7 
1-74 
1-79 
1-88 


1-47 
1-5 
1-64 
1-78 
1-9 
2-01 
2-12 
2-22 

m 

2-51 


1-96 

2- 

2-19 

.-.:: 

•J  • 

Ml 

•Tl 


Feet. 

3-58 

3-69 

3'8 

3-9 

4- 

42 

4-38 

4-56 

4-73 

4-9 

5-06 

5-22 


ARCHES    AND    ABUTMENTS. 


83 


Minimum  Thickness  of  Abutments  for  Arches  of  120°, 
•where  their  Depth  does  not  exceed  3  Feet. 

Computed  from  the  formula  — 


/«     i  f8lY       8r 
V  ^-H^)  -2* 


Height  of  Abutment  to  Spring  la  Feet. 

Reigbt  of  Abutment  to  Spnng  U  Feet. 

1" 

RtdlM 

of 
Area. 

5 

7-5 

10 

20 

80 

0 

7-6 

10 

SO 

H 

r*et. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

F€tc 

Feet 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Fee*. 

F«ec 

~FeeT 

"F^Z" 

F>,t 

4 

8-7 

4-2 

4-3 

4-6 

4-7 

12- 

6-6 

6-4 

6D' 

7-6 

7  'J 

4-5 

8-9 

4-4 

4-6 

4-9 

5- 

15- 

6- 

7- 

7-5 

8-4 

-  H 

5- 

4-2 

4-9 

4-8 

5-1 

5-2 

20- 

6-5 

7-7 

8-4 

10 

6- 

4-5 

4-7 

5-2 

5-6 

8-7 

25- 

6-9 

8-2 

9-1 

10-5 

111 

7- 

4-7 

5-2 

6-5 

6- 

6-1 

30- 

7-2 

9-7 

9-7 

111 

U 

8- 

5-5 

5-8 

6-4 

6-5 

85- 

7-4 

91 

10-2 

11-8 

U'.l 

9- 

6-1 

5-8 

6-1 

6-7 

6-9 

40- 

9-4 

10-6 

12-8 

IM 

10- 

5-3 

6- 

6-4 

M 

7-3 

45- 

7-8 

11- 

13-4 

u  :< 

5-5 

6-2 

6-6 

7-8 

7-6 

80- 

T9 

10- 

11-4 

14- 

It 

NOTE.—  The  abutments  are  assumed  to  be  without  counterfort* 
or  wing  walls. 

Keystones. 

To  Compute  the  Depth  of  Ktyttonei  for  Srymental  Arches  of  StoM. 

(TKAUTW1ME.) 

First  Class  of  Arch,     -86  /  of  the  radius  at  the  orown. 
Second  Class  of  Arch.     -4  j/  of  the  radius  at  the  crown. 
Brick  or  Rubble.     -45  v/  of  the  radius  at  the  crown. 
In  Viaducts  of  several  Arches.     Increase  the  above  units  to  -42, 
•46,  and-61. 

Railway  Bridge*. 

For  Spans  between  25  and  70  feet. 
Jtisf,  |  of  the  Span.     Depth  of  Arch,  -055  of  the  Span. 
Thickness  of  Abutments,  from  \  to  £  of  the  Span.     Matter,  1  inch 
per  foot. 

Cost  of  Tunnels  prior  to  1855.— (Major  McClettan,  U.S.A.) 


Location. 

Per  Coble 
Yard. 

1           — 

P.rCo«. 

t  CU. 

$  CU. 

Black  Rock,  U.  S.;greywacke  \ 
slate  f 

6  60 

England,  freestone,  marble,) 
clay,  etc.,  lined  j 

846 

Blaislev,  France,  lined  
Bli.sworth,EnK.,  blue  clay,  lined 
Blue  Ridge   U.  S    

3  18 
1  55 
4  00 

Lehi-h,  U.S.,  haid  granite  
Schuylkill,  U.  S.,  slate  
>  Union,  U  8.  slate  ~  

4  38 
2  00 
2  08 

84        IRON    WORKS,   FLOUR    MILLS,   ETC, 


Railway  Tunnels. 

In  soft  sandstone,  U.  S.,  without  lining,  per  lineal  yard...  $88  00 

In  loose  ground,  thick  lining,  per  lineal  yard 710  00 

Ordinary  brick  lining,  including  centring,  per  cubic  yard.       8  60 

Shafts. 

Blaisley  Tunnel,  clay,  chalk,  and  loose  earth,  per  yard  in  depth, 
$139.11.  Deepest,  646  feet. 

Black  Rock,  7  feet  in  diameter  and  139  in  depth,  hard  slate,  per 
yard  in  depth,  $79.50,  or  per  cubic  yard,  $18.72. 

The  time  required  to  drive  the  heading  of  the  Black  Rock  Tunnel 
for  1782-5  feet  was  2387  turns  of  12  hours  each. 


IRON  WORKS  (ENGLAND). 

Temperature  of  hot  blast 600° 

Density  of  blast  and  of  refining  furnace....  L'A  to  3  Ibs.  per  sq.  in. 
Revolutions  of   puddling  rolls  per  minute,   60;    rail  rolls,   100; 
rail  saw,  800. 

Horse-power  (indicated)  required  for  different 
Processes. 


Blast  furnace 60 

Refining  furnace 26 

Puddling  rolls  with  squeezers 
and  shears 80 


Rail  rolling  train 250 

Small  bar  train 60 

Double  rail  saw 12 

Straightening 7 


Rolling- Mills. 
10  tons  bar  iron  per  day 80  |  Plates,  for  each  sq.  ft  rolled.  5 

FLOUR    MILLS,  SAW    MILLS,  WOOD- 
WORKING MACHINERY. 


Flour  Mills. 


For  each  pair  of  4-feet  stones,  with  all  the  necessary  dressing 
machinery,  etc.,  there  is  required  15  horses'  power. 

One  pair  of  4-feet  stones  will  grind  about  6  bushels  of  wheat 
per  hour.  Each  bushel  of  wheat  so  ground  per  hour  requires  -87 
actual  or  1-11  indicated  horses'  power,  exclusive  of  dressing  and 
other  machinery. 

Stonet,  4  feet  diameter,  120  to  140  revolutions  per  minute. 


WOOD-WORKING    MACHINERY.  85 

Dressing  Machine*,  21  inches  diameter,  450  to  600  revolutions 
per  minute. 

Creepers,  3J  inches  pitch,  76  revolutions  per  minute. 

Elevator,  18  inches  diameter,  40  revolutions  per  minute. 

Screen,  1(5  inches  diameter,  300  to  350  revolutions  per  minute. 

788  cubio  feet  of  water,  discharged  at  a  velocity  of  1  foot  per 
second,  are  necessary  to  grind  and  dress  1  bushel  of  wheat  per 
hour  =  1*49  horses'  power  per  bushel. 

2000  feet  per  minute,  for  the  velocity  of  a  stone  4  feet  in  diam- 
eter, may  be  considered  a  maximum  speed. 

Saw-Millfl. 

Oang  taw,  80  square  feet  of  dry  oak,  or  45  square 
feet  of  dry  pine,  per  hour 1  hone-power. 

Circular  taw,  2-5  feet  in  diameter,  270  revolutions 
per  minute,  40  square  feet  of  oak,  or  70  of  dry 
spruce 1  " 

800  revolutions  per  minute.  1-38  square  feet  of  dry  pine  per 
minute,  kerf  ^  inch  and  6  inches  deep,  requires  the  power  of  1 
horse  for  the  saw  alone ;  and  1  square  foot,  kerf  I  inch  and  1  foot 
in  depth,  requires  a  like  power. 

4-5  feet  in  diameter,  kerf  \  and  1  foot  in  depth,  requires  1 
horse's  power  for  1-83  feet  per  minute. 

Oak  requires  nearly  one- half  more  power  than  pine. 

With  a  kerf  of  $  inch,  1  horse's  power  will  saw  2-66  square  feet 
per  minute. 

The  speed  of  the  periphery  should  be  about  50  feet  per  minute. 

Velocities    of   "Wood-working    Machinery    in    Feet   or 
Revolutions  per  Minute. 

Circular  saws,  at  periphery,  6000  to  7000  feet. 

Band  saw,  2500  feet. 

Gang  saws,  20  inch  stroke,  120  strokes  per  minute. 

Scroll  saws,  300  strokes  per  minute. 

Planing-machine  cutters  at  periphery,  4000  to  fiOOO  feet. 

Work  under  planing-machine,  Xth  of  an  inch  for  each  cut. 

Moulding-machine  cutters,  3500  to  4000  feet. 

8quaring-up-machine  cutters,  7000  to  8000  feet. 

Wood-carving  drills,  T>000  revolutions. 

Machine  augers,  1J  diameter,  900  revolutions. 

Machine  augers,  J  diameter,  1200  revolutions. 

Gang  saws  require  for  45  superficial  feet  of  pine  per  hour,  1 
horse  power. 

Circular  saws  require  for  75  superficial  feet  of  pine  per  hour,  1 
horse  power. 

In  oak  or  hard  wood,  f  ths  of  the  above  quantity  require  1  horse 
power. 


86 


MINING    AND    BLASTING. 


Sharpening  Angles  of  Machine  Cutters. 


Adzing  soft  wood  across  the 
grain 30° 

Pluning-machines,  ordinary 
soft  wood 35° 


Gouges  and  ploughing  ma- 
chines   40° 

Hard-wood  tool  cutters  50°  to  55° 


MINING  AND  BLASTING. 

Mining. 
!• 

In  ordinary  Soil,  —  =  charge  of  powder  in  pounds,  I  representing 

half  the  depth  of  the  line  of  least  resistance. 

In  Masonry,  /»  X  C  =  charge  in  pounds  ;  C  representing  a  coefficient 
depending  upon  the  structure. 

In  a  plain  Wall,  C  =  -16,  in  one  with  counterforts  =  -2.  and 
under  a  foundation  when  it  is  supported  upon  two  sides  =  *4  to  *6. 

Blasting. 

In  small  blasts,  1  pound  of  powder  will  loosen  about  4}  tons. 

In  large  blasts,  1  pound  of  powder  will  loosen  about  2}  tons. 

60  or  60  pounds  of  powder,  enclosed  in  a  resisting  bag,  hung  or 
propped  up  against  a  gate  or  barrier,  will  demolish  any  ordinary 
construction. 

One  man  can  bore,  with  a  bit.  1  inch  in  diameter,  from  60  to 
100  inches  per  day  of  10  hours  in  granite,  or  300  to  400  inches 
per  day  in  limestone. 

Two  strikers  and  a  holder  can  bore,  with  a  bit  2  inches  in  di- 
ameter, 10  feet  in  a  day  in  rock  of  medium  hardness. 


PROJECTION  OF  WATER. 

Heights  to  which   "Water   may  be    Projected    through 
Engine  Pipes  under  Pressure. 


68 
102 
136 
170 


132 


•6 
•33 
•25 
•2 


90 
105 
120 
150 


Feet. 

204 
238 
272 
340 


166 
198 
231 

297 


•17 
•14 
•125 


WATER-POWER. 


87 


Power  required  to  raise  Water  from  Wells  by  a  Double- 
acting  Lifting  Pump. 


Depth  from  which  thi.  Volume  can  be  raised  by  each  Unit  of  Power. 

or 

Pump. 

ass;. 

Man  taming 
a  Crank. 

Donkey 
working  a  Gin. 

Bone 
working  a  Gin. 

One  Hone- 
power  Kngln*. 

Inchee. 

Gallons. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

reel. 

Feet. 

2 

265 

80 

160 

560 

880 

2* 

420 

60 

100 

850 

550 

8 

620 

85 

70 

245 

885 

•i 

830 

25 

50 

175 

276 

4 

lOtt) 

20 

40 

140 

220 

WATER-POWER. 


To  Compute  Water-power. 

eoo  rip 
•00189  V  A  =  horse',  power,  and       y      =  V ;  V  representing  volume 

of  water,  in  cubic  feet,  per  minute,  and  h  head  of  water  from  race  in 
feet. 


Effective  Horse-power  for  different  Motors. 
Theoretical  power  .....................................................  1- 


Undershot  wheels  .........  =     -4 

Poncelet's  un'shot  wheel  =     -6 
Breast  wheel  (high)  ......  =     -55 


(low) 


Overshot  wheel. 


Reaction  wheel. 
Impact  wheel ... 

Turbines.... 


Tremont  turbine. 
Hydraulic  ram  ... 


,=    -2 
=     -5 


Hydraulic  Ram. 


882  HP 


=  V,  -00113  V  A  =  HP ;  V  representing  volume  of  water  in 

cubic  feet  per  minute,  A  head  of  water  in  feet,  and  HP  actual  horse- 
power. 


88  WAVES. 


Jet  Pump. 

The  greatest  effect  of  a  Jet  Pump  is  when  the  depth  from  which 
the  water  it)  drawn  through  the  supply  or  suction  pipe  is  -y  of  the 
height  from  which  the  water  fell  to  give  the  jet. 

The  flow  up  the  suction  pipe  being  -2  of  that  of  the  volume  of 
the  jet ;  hence  the  effect  =  -9  x  ^  =  "18. 

Imperial  Gallons. 
6-2355  Gallons  in  a  Cubic  Foot. 


WAVES. 

The  undulations  of  waves  are  performed  in  the  same  time  as  the 
oscillations  of  a  pendulum,  the  length  of  which  is  equal  to  the 
breadth  of  a  wave,  or  to  the  distance  between  two  neighboring 
cavities  or  eminences. 


ALLOYS    AND    COMPOSITIONS. 


89 


SOLDERS. 


Tin. 


"    coarxe.  melts  at  500".. 

"   ordinary,  melU  at  861 

Sp.-llcr,  soft 

"        hard 
Lead. 
St.  .•! 
BrsHtt  or Copper'!.... 

Une  Brans 

Pewterera'  or  Boft... 

Gold  .... 
"      bard 


Sliver,  h*rd 

"  Ml  ft 

Pewter 

Iron 

f"l'l"-r.! 


i 


8 


8 


A  PLASTIC  METALLIC  ALLOT.— See  Journal  of  Franklin  Institute, 
vol.  xxxix,  page  65,  for  Ita  composition  and  manufacture. 

Composition  for  Welding  Cast  Steel.— Borax,  10  parts;  sal- 
ammoniac,  1  part.  Grind  or  pound  them  roughly  together;  fuse 
them  in  a  metal  pot  over  a  clear  fire,  continuing  the  heat  until  all 
spume  has  dtepMWed  from  the  surface.  When  the  liquid  Is  clear, 
pour  the  rompoMi  ion  out  to  cool  and  concrete,  and  grind  to  a  fine 
powder;  then  it  is  ready  for  use. 

To  use  this  composition,  the  steel  to  be  welded  should  be  raised  to 
a  bright  yellow  heat;  then  dip  it  in  the  welding  powder,  and  again 
raise  it  to  a  like  heat  as  before;  it  is  then  ready  to  be  submitted  to 
the  hammer. 


FUSIBLE  COMPOUNDS. 


Compounds. 

| 

5 

1 

i 

1 

1 

Rose's  fusing  at  200°    

25 

25 

50 

Fusing  at  less  than  2uO° 

333 

333 

33.4 

N»-wton'8,  fusing  at  less  than  2I2P  

i*9 

81 

50 

fusing  at  150°  to  160°  

12 

25 

60 

18 

Soldering  Fluid  for  use  with  Soft  Solder. — To  2  fluid  oz.  of 
muriatic  acid  add  small  pieces  of  zinc  until  bubbles  cease  to  rise. 
Add  %  a  teaspoonful  of  sal-ammoniac  and  2  fluid  oz.  of  water. 


90  MISCELLANEOUS    NOTES. 

By  the  application  of  this  to  iron  or  steel,  they  may  be  soldered 
without  their  surfaces  being  previously  tinned. 

FLUXES  FOE  SOLDEBING  OR  WELDIN3. 

Iron Borax. 

Tinned  Iron ll.-iii. 

Copper  and  Brass Sal-ammoniac. 

Zinc Chloride  of  zinc. 

Lead Tallow  .,f  resin. 

Lead  and  tin  pipes Resin  and  sweet  oiL 

STEEL.— Sal-ammoniac,  1  part;  borax,  10  parts.  Pound  together, 
and  fuse  until  clear,  and,  when  cool,  reduce  to  powder. 

Babbitt's  Anti-attrition  Metal.— Molt  4  Ibs.  copper:  add,  by 
delves,  IL' n.s.  best  Bane* tin;  s  n».  n-^uiiH  -if  antimony,  and  li 

Ibs.  iiiniv  of  tin.     After  4  or  5  Ibs.  tin  have  been   added,  reduce  the 
heat  to  a  dull  red,  then  add  the  remainder  of  the  metal  as  above. 

This  composition  is  termed  A<m/->-// //*/•/,•  for  lining,  take  1  lb.  of  this 
hardtminff,  melt  with  it  2  Ibs.  Banca  tin,  which  produces  the  lining 
metal  for  use.  Hence,  the  proportions  for  lining  metal  are  4  Ibs.  01 
copper,  8  of  regulus  of  antimony,  and  %  of  tin. 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES. 

DIMENSIONS  OF  DRAWINGS  FOR  PATENTS.  —  United  States,  all  of 
drawing  and  signature  to  be  within  marginal  line  of  8x13  inches. 
Leave  1  inch  margin,  making  the  paper  10  x  15  inches. 

SERVICE  TRAIN  OF  A  QUARTERMASTER.— The  Quartermaster's 
train  of  an  army  averages  1  wagon  to  every  _'t  men:  and  a  well- 
equipped  army  in  the  field,  with  artillery,  cavalry,  and  trains,  re- 
quues  1  horse  or  mule,  upon  the  average,  to  every  2  men. 

A  LrMixous  POINT,  to  produce  a  visual  circle,  must  have  a  velo- 
city of  10  feet  in  a  second,  the  diameter  not  exceeding  l>~>  inches. 

All  solid  bodies  become  luminous  at  800  degrees  of  heat. 

TiDEa— The  difference  in  time  between  high  water  averages 
about  49  minutes  each  day. 

In  sandy  soil,  the  greatest  force  of  a  pile-driver  will  not  drive  a 
pile  over  15  feet. 

A  FALL  of  .1  of  an  inch  in  a  mile  will  produce  a  current  in  rivers. 
MELTED  SNOW  produces  from  X  to  y*  of  its  bulk  in  water. 

At  the  depth  of  45  feet,  the  temperature  of  the  earth  is  uniform 
throughout  the  year. 


STRKXflTTI    OF    MATERIALS.  91 

A  SPERMACETI  CANDLE  .85  of  an  Inch  in  diameter  consumes  an 

inch  in  Icu-tli  in  1  hour. 

Sn.irv  is  the  base  of  the  mineral  world,  and  Carbon  of  the  or- 
gani/.cd. 

SOUND  passes  in  water  at  a  velocity  of  4,708  feet  per  second. 

M  1 1  \  i,s  have  fi  v.-  degrees  of  lustre—  fplend&U,  shining,  glistening, 

ijliiitui.  rimj  and  dull, 

A  MARBLE-SAW  requires  half  a  horse's  power. 

WIRE  AND  HEMP  ROPES.— A  wire  rope  3^  ins.  in  circumference. 

ami  ;i  hi-mp  -hroii'l  s  ins.  in  circumference,  parted  in  the  rope  at 
H"    tons — t .''•"•>  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 

ENDLESS  ROPES.—  Tlie  friction  or  adhesion  of  ropes  Is  from  .1  to 
.07  of  their  weight. 

Brief  Rules  for  the  Computation  of  the  'Weights  of  Cast 
Iron  Pipes  and  Cast  and  "Wrought  Iron  Bolts.--(  Horatio  Alien.) 
— CAST  IRON  PIPES. — To  the  inner  diameter  of  the  pip-1  add  the 
thickness  of  tin-  pipe  in  inches,  and  multiply  the  sum  by  in  tim.-s  the 
thickness,  and  the  product  will  give  the  weight  in  pounds  per  foot. 

WuoroHT  IRON  BOLTS. — Square  the  radius  of  the  bolt  and  multi- 
ply it  by  10,  and  the  product  will  give  the  weight  in  pounds  per 

flor  east  iron,  subtract  2-27,  or,  .074  of  the  result 

MU.I.EABLE  OR  ALtTMTNmi  BRONZE.— By  weight:  Copper,  90: 
Aluminum,  10.  This  composition  may  lx*  forged  cither  when  betted 
or  cooled,  and  becomes  extremely  dense.  Its  tensile  strength  is 
100,000  Ibs.,  and  when  drawn  into  wire  128.000  Ibs.,  and  its  elasti- 
city one  half  that  of  wrought  iron.  Specific  gravity,  7700. 


STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS. 

ELASTICITY  AND  STRENGTH. 

The  component  parts  of  a  rigid  body  adhere  to  each  other  with  a 
force  which  is  termed  cohesion. 

Elasticity  is  the  resistance  which  a  body  opposes  to  a  change  of 
form. 

">  is  the  resistance  which  a  body  opposes  to  a  permanent 
separation  of  its  parts. 

fh,  accord inc  to  th<>  manner  in  which  a  force 
to  exerted  upon  a  i>o<i\,  are  distinguished  as  t-mtii-  *tr.-n<jth,  or  ab- 
solute resi-tan>  '/.-.  or  r> -si-tain-.'  to  tit-Mire;  ,'r>i*h- 
iii'j  xtr-  n;,'1k.  or  roUtanc.-  to  compression;  tornional  strength,  or  re- 
slstauce  to  torsion;  and  detru&ve  strength;  or  resistance  to  shearing. 


92  STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS. 

Tho  limit  of  stiffness  is  flexure,  and  the  limit  of  strength  or  resist- 
ance is  fracture. 

•  loneliness  of  hndi'-s.  N  -tr'-ngth  and  flexibility  com- 
bined; hence  any  material  or  body  which  bear-  tin-  groate.-t  load, 
and  bends  tin-  nio.-t  al  tin-  time  ol  fracture,  i.-  the  toui;lic.-t. 

The  tp'-rifir  firm-it;/  of  iron  is  ascertained  to  indicate  very  cor- 
rectly the  relative  degree  of  its  strength. 

The  nnilral  arts,  or  line  of  equilibrium,  is  the  line  at  which  ex- 
tension terminates  and  compression  be-in-. 

The  1-,'nistance  of  cast  iron  to  crushing  and  tensile  strains  is,  as  a 
mean,  as  4,  3  to  1.* 

English  cast  iron  has  a  higher  resistance  to  compression,  and  a 
lc—  tensile  resistance,  than  American. 

Tho  mean  tensile  strength  of  American  cast  iron,  as  determined 
by  Major  Wade  for  th.-'  I'.  S.  Ordnance  Corp-,  i-  :<l.s-_".'  lh>.  per 
square  inch  of  section;  the  mean  of  English,  as  determined  by  Mr. 
K.  Hodgkinson  for  the  Kailwav  Commission,  etc.,  in  1K4!».  i-  I!t.4.s4 
Ita.;  and  by  Col.  Wilmot  at  Woolwich,  in  1858,  for  gun-metal,  is 
23,257  Ibs 

The  ultimate  extension  of  cast  iron  is  the  500th  part  of  its  length. 

The  me,nn  tru^-nc  xtr'tifjth  of  American  oast  iron,  also  deter- 
mined by  Major  Wade,  is  t!si  |bs.  per  »|iiare  iii'-h.  >n-|>eiidi-d  from 
a  bar  fixed  at  one  end  an<l  loaded  at  the  other:  and  the  mean  of 
English,  as  determined  by  Fairbairn,  Barlow,  and  olhers,  is  500  Ibs. 

The  resistance  of  \crmifjhl  iron  to  crushing  and  tensile  strains  is, 
as  a  mean,  as  l'~>  to  1  for  American:  and  for  Kn-jrlisli,  1"J  to  1. 

Tho  mmn  tentUe  strength  of  American  wrought  iron,  as  dotor- 
mineil  by  Prof.  Johnson,  is  "I.IHHI  Ibs..  and  the  mean  of  English,  as 
determined  by  Capt.  Brown,  Barlow,  Brunei,  and  Fairbairn,  is 
63,900  Ibs.  f 

Tho  ultimate  extension  of  wrought  iron  is  the  600th  part  of  its 
length. 

The  rrsittfincf  tofl°jnire,  acting  evenly  over  the  surface,  is  nearly 
%  the  tensile  resistance. 

Modulus  of   Elasticity. — Tho    modulus    or  corfliri°nt  of    the 

elu*ti-itii  of  any  substance  is  the  mea-Mire  of  its  ela-i'i  •  r<-a<-tion  or 
force,  and  is  tlio  height  of  a  column  of  the  same  substance,  eanable. 
of  producing  a  ]ires-ure  on  its  ba^e.  which  is  to  the  weight  causing 
a  certain  decree  of  compression,  us  the  length  of  the  >nb>tance  is 
to  the  diminution  of  its  length. 

It  is  computed  by  this  analogy:  As  tho  extension  or  diminution 
of  the  length  of  any  given  sobaaUMe  is  to  it>  1-nnth  in  iii"h.'-.  -o  is 
the  force  that  produced  that  extension  or  diminution  to  the  modulus 
of  its  elasticity. 

Or,  z :  P : :  l:u>  =  — ,  x  representing  the  length  a  substnnce  1  In  square 
z 

n»<  -.f  Mr.  IIiMl-kin-SMii  .,u  irou  of  low  tensile  strength 

gives  a  nii'ail  of   t't.'M  I'll. 

fThe  results,  as  given  by  Mr.  Telford,  Included  experiments  upon 
Swedish  iron ;  hence  they  are  omitted  in  this  summary. 


STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS.  93 

ami  1  foot  In  length  would  be  extended  or  diminished  by  the  force  P 
and  w  the  weight  of  the  modulus  in  tbs. 

To  Compute  the  Weight  of  the  Modulus  of  Elasticity 
of  a  Substance. — RULE. — As  the  extension  or  compression  of  the 
length  of  auy  substance  is  to  its  length,  so  is  the  weight  that  pro- 
dmvil  that  extension  or  compression  to  the  modulus  of  elasticity 
in  pounds  avoirdupois. 

EXAMPLE.— If  a  bar  of  cast-Iron,  1  inch  square  and  10  feet  In  length 
Is  extended  .008  Inch,  with  a  weight  of  1000  Iba.,  what  la  the  weight  of  its 
modulus  of  elasticity? 

.OOS  :  130  (10X12) : :  1000 : 15.000.000  Bw. 

NOTE.— When  the  weight  of  the  modulus  of  elasticity  of  a  substance 
IB  known,  the  height  of  it  can  be  readily  computed  by  dividing  the 
weight  by  the  weight  of  a  bar  of  the  substance  1  inch  square  and  I  foot 
in  length. 

Ex.  2.— If  a  wrought-lron  chain,  60  feet  In  length  and  .2  inch  in  diam- 
eter, is  subjected  to  a  strain  of  150  tt>s.,  what  will  it  be  extended? 

The  modulus  of  elasticity  of  iron  wire  is  26,808,000  fcs.,  and  the  area  of 
chain  .2»x; 7854^.31416. 

150 
=477,463  tt>s.  per  square  inch,  and  60x12=720  ins. 

120         843.773  36 

Then  477.463X = =.0128  Inch. 

2B.808.000    26,808,000 

To  Compute  the  Weight  when  the  Height  is  Given. — 
RULE. — Multiply  the  weight  of  1  foot  in  length  of  the  material  by 
the  height  of  the  modulus  in  feet,  and  the  product  will  give  the 
weight. 

To  Compute  the  Height  of  the  Modulus  of  Elasticity. — 
RULE. — Divide  the  weight  of  the  modulus  of  elasticity  of  the 
material  by  weight  of  1  foot  of  it  and  the  quotient  will  give  the 
height  in  feet. 

From  a  series  of  elaborate  experiments  by  Mr.  E.  Hodgkinson 
for  the  Railway  Commission,  he  deduced  the  following  formulae  for 
the  extension  and  compression  of  cast  and  wrought  iron: 

CAST-IRON  EXTENSION  :  13,934,040  -  -  2,907,432,000  -  =  W. 
I  ft 

e  e» 

CAST-IBON  COMPRESSION  :  12,931,560 522,979,200 —  =  W,  e  and  e  re- 

l  P 

presenting  the  extension  and  compression,  and  I  the  length  In  Inches. 

IT/LUSTRATION. — What  weight  will  extend  a  bar  of  cast-iron,  4  inches 
square  and  10  leet  in  length,  to  the  extent  of  .2  inch? 

13,934,040X-^  -  -  2,907,432,000  — -  =  23223.4  -  8076.2  =  15147.2,  which  X  4  Ins, 


94 


STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS. 


MODULUS  OF  ELASTICITY  AND  WEIGHT  OF  VAKIOUS  SUB- 
STANCES. 


SUBSTANCES. 


3 


ulit 

I.  ,  t. 


A-h 

Br.isa,  yellow... 

wire 

Copper,  cast. 

Kir,  red 


4,9.0.000 


Gun-meUU  

Hempen  fibre*. 

Ice  

li'.n,  cast 


wre  ......... 


4112,000 

4, N,MI,  i  IK) 

K,:tH)  (MM) 
4.1111.1^1 
2.71»(IOl)0 

6 «' 

6,0  I  000 

5J7W900 

560000 

M77.000 

n«; 


i.i'.:i.-,m 

l.796>50 

7211.000 


Limestone 

Mahogany 

Mail.le,  WbltO... 
Oak 

1'ilie,  1'lK-h 

"     White 

Steel,  cast 

44        wire _ 

Stone,  Portland 

I  II),   ClUSt 

W  illow 

Yel.  Pin*-,  mean 

/.me  


I.K.-IO.OOO 
2.400,000 

4,7.^IIHNI 

8,i»  U.(KX) 
8^80,000 

! '."» 

U672.000 

tl'.lNIUH) 

: 


1,080,400 

!4^08,000 
1.710,000 

i 

2,K)0.(iOO 
13,410,1100 


The  elasticity  of  Ivory,  as  compared  to  Glass,  is  as  .95  to  1. 

To  Compute  the  Length  of  a  Prism  of  a  Material  which 
would  be  severed  by  its  own  'Weight  •when  Suspended. — 
RULE. — Divide  the  tensile  resistance  of  the  material  by  the  weight 
of  a  foot  of  it  in  length,  and  the  quotient  will  give  the  length. 

Modulus  of  Cohesion,  or  Length  in  Feet  required  to  Tear 
assunder  the  following  Substances.— Kawhide,  15,375  feet; 

hemp  twine,  7 .•.,0(10  feet;  Catgut,  u'.'.,"iiU  feet. 

Tensile  Strength.  '/'  tance  of  the 

fibres  or  particles  of  a  body  to  sep;\nition.  It  is  therefore  propor- 
tional to  their  number,  or  to" the  area  of  its  transverse  section. 

The  fibre*  of  wood  are  .-strongest  near  the  centre  of  the  trunk  or 
limb  of  a  tree. 

CAST  IRON. — Experiments  on  oast  iron  barspive  a  tensile  strength 
of  from  4,000  Ibs.  to  5,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch  of  its  section,  as  just 
sufficient  to  balance  the  elasticity  of  the  metal,  and  as  a  bar  of  it  is 
extended  the  5500th  part  of  its  length  for  every  ton  of  direct  strain 
per  square  inch  of  its  section,  it  is  d  due  d  thai  its  elasticity  is  fully 
excited  when  it  is  extended  less  than  tbe  3000th  part  of  Its  length, 
and  the  extension  of  it  at  its  limit  of  elasticiy  is  estimated  at  the 
1-tioth  part  of  its  length. 

The  mean  tensil*  str>  tifjth,  then,  of  cast  iron  being  from  16,000  to 
20,000  Ibs.,  the  oohuot  it.  \vh-n  su'-.j ct  d  to  a  ten.-ile  strain,  may 
be  safi  ly  estimated  at  from  }{  to  %  of  this,  or  of  its  breaking  strain. 

A  bar  of  cnst  iron  will  contrast  or  expand  .000006173,  or  the 
i  of  its  length  for  eaeh  degree  of  b  -at;  and  a-iiniini,'  the  ex- 
treme range  of  the  temperature  in  this  country  140°  ( — 20°  l.'OO), 
it  will  contract  or  expand  with  this  change  .MOMtS,  or  the  n.-.7th 
part  of  its  length.  It  .shrinks  in  cooling  from  .0104  to  .0118  of  its 

It  follows,  then,  that  as  2240  Ibs.  will  extend  a  bar  the  6500th 


STRENGTH    OP    MATERIALS.  95 

part  of  its  length,  the  contraction  or  extension  for  the  1157th  part 
will  be  equivalent  to  a  force  of  10,648  Ibs.  (1%  tons)  per  square  inch 
of  section. 

Cast  iron  (Greenwood)  at  three  successive  meltings  gave  tenaci- 
ti. •-,  uf  21,300,  30,100,  and  35,700  Ibs. 

Cast  iron  at  2.5  tons  per  square  inch  will  extend  the  same  as 
wrought  iron  at  5.6  tons. 

The  mean  tensile  strength  of  four  kinds  of  English  cast  iron,  as  de- 
term  ined  by  the  Commissioners  on  the  Application  of  Iron  to  Railway 
Struct uivs,"  was  15,711  Ibs.  per  square  inch  (7. 014  tons);  and  the 
mean  ultimate  extension  was,  for  lengths  of  10  feet,  .1997  inch, 
IMMII'.:  the  r,iM»th  part  of  its  length;  and  this  weight  would  compress 
a  bur  the  775th  part  of  its  length. 

Tensile  strength  of  the  strongest  piece  of  cast  Iron  ever  tested— 
4.v.>7n  Ibs.  This  was  a  mixture  of  grades  1,  2,  and  3  of  Greenwood 
iron,  and  at  the  3d  fusion. 

WROUGHT  IRON.  —  Experiments  on  wrought  Iron  bars  give  a 
tensile  strength  of  from  18,000  Ibs.  to  22,400  Ibs.  per  square  inch  of  its 
section,  as  Just  sufficient  to  balance  the  elasticitv  of  the  metal,  and 
as  a  liar  of  it  is  extended  the  10,000th  part  of  its  length  for  every  ton 
of  direct  strain  per  square  inch  of  its  section,  it  is  deduced  that  its 
elasticity  is  fully  excited  when  it  is  extended  the  1000th  part  of  its 
length,  and  the  extension  of  it  at  Its  limit  of  elasticity  is  estimated 
at  the  1520th  part  of  its  length. 

The  mean  tensile  strength  of  wrought  iron  being  from  55,000  to 
65,000  Ibs.,  the  value  of  it,  when  subjected  to  a  tensile  strain,  maybe 
sat'«-iy  estimated  at  from  V£  to  %  01  this,  or  of  its  breaking  strain. 
A  bar  of  wrought  iron  will  expand  or  contract  .000006614,  or  the 
l.r)i.-_'(i(ith  part  of  Its  length  for  each  degree  of  heat;  and  assuming, 
n^  liel'ure  stated  for  cast  iron,  that  the  extreme  range  (if  temperature 
in  the  air  in  this  country  is  140°,  It  will  contract  or  expand  with  this 
change  .inn  ><»•_><>,  or  the  1080th  of  its  length,  which  is  equivalent  to  a 
inn-.-  of  20,740  Ibs.  (9>£  tons)  per  square  inch  of  section. 

Experiments  upon  wrought  iron,  to  determine  the  results  from 
repeated  heating  and  laminating,  furnished  the  following: — From  1 
to  6  reheating  and  rollings,  the  tensile  strength  increased  from 
43,904  Ibs.  to  61,824  Ibs.,  and  from  6  to  12  it  was  reduced  to  43,904 
again. 

The  tensile  force  of  metals  varies  with  their  temperature,  generally 
decreasing  as  the  temperature  is  increased.  In  silver  the  tenacity 
decreases  more  rapidly  than  the  temperature;  in  copper,  gold,  and 
platinum  it  decreases  less  rapidly  than  the  temperature. 

In  iron,  the  tensile  strength  at  different  temperature  is  as  follows: 
60°.  1;  11*0  1.14;  212°,  1.2;  250°,  1.32;  270°,  1.35:  326°,  1.41: 
435°,  1.4. 

STIRLING'S  MIXED  OR  TOUGHENED  IRON.—  By  the  mixture  of  a 
portion  of  malleable  iron  with  cast  iron,  carefully  fused  in  a  cruel- 
lil'-,  a  tensile  strain  of  25,764  Ibs.  has  been  attained.  This  mixture, 
when  judiciously  managed  and  duly  proportioned,  increases  the 
resistance  of  cast  iron  about  one-third;  the  greatest  effect  being  ob- 
tained with  a  proportion  of  about  30  per  cent,  of  malleable  iron. 

Bronze  (gun-metal)  varies  in  tenacity  from  23,000  to  54,500  Ibs. 
7 


96 


STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS. 


ELEMENTS   CONNECTED  WITH  THE  TENSILE  RESISTANCE  OF 
VARIOUS  SUBSTANCES. 


|i!x 

Hi 

2JJ-* 

IN 

StmSTANCKS. 

Pi 

Ills 

IKatioofst 
to  thnt  ( 
inuKup 

SUBSTANCES. 

Jill 

m 

Beech  

Lbs. 

.8 

Wrought-iron,  Swe. 

Lbs. 

•Jl    HHI 

.S4 

Cast-iron,  English... 
American 
Oak  

4,000 
6,000 
2)856 

J 
.28 

"        Eng.  j 
"            Am 

18,850 

•^m 

21,000 

-'i 

Steel    pi  H  tea,   blue 
tempered  
Stool  wire  
Yellow  Pine 

turn 

85.700 

.62 
.6 
23 

Wrought  wire.  No.  9. 

uii.nmealed  
Wrought  wire,  No.  9, 

47,532 

86,300 

.49 
45 

Wrought-lron,  or'dy 

17,600 

J 

TENSILE  STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS. 


OK    POWER    REQUIRED    TO  TEAR  ASUNDER  ONE    SQUARE 

INCH. 
METALS. 


Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Copper,  wrought  
"       rolled  
"       cast,  American  
••       wire 

84000 
86000 

BUM 

Iron  plates.mean,  English 
lengthwise  
crnvswlse.  _ 
"    Inferior,  bar  

61000 
68800 
48800 
BOOM 

"       bolt 

::.  ...  < 

7  i'liW) 

Iron,  cast.  Low  Moor.No.  2 
Clyde  No  1 

i;  I7fl 

I'.!".', 

"        "    '         "       lejdiam 

."  H) 

6MM 

"       NO  8  

•MB 

Lead,  C;IM 

1800 

Calder  No  1 

"       milltnl 

MB 

Stirling,  mean  

"       wiro  

2580 

mean  of  American  
mean*  of  English,  
Greenwood,  Amer'n.. 
gun-metal,  mean  
wrought  wire  
best  Swedish  bar.  

81829 

HUM 

87481 
108000 
72000 
68500 

Platinum,  wire  
Silver,  cast  
Steel,  cast,  maximum  
*4         **     moan  

"       blistered,  soft  | 

6800B 
MOOO 

l:j.«x) 
88657 
188000 
104000 

1°1(X)0 

English  bar  
rlvots,  American  
bolts 

60000 
68300 

62250 

"        chrome,  mean  
puddled,  extreme... 

hammered  
mean  of  English  
rivets  English 

531I13 
68900 

!•.">;.  i' 

"       plates,  longthwise... 
"       crosswise  

96800 

88700 

I'^XKI) 

crank  shaft  
turnings  
plates,  boiler,  ) 

44760 

Tin,  cast,  block  
"    Banca 
Zinc  .".."..'."'."" 

6000 

2122 
3500 

American                J 

"    sheet  

lf-000 

Lake  Superior  and  Iron  Mountain  charcoal  bloom  Iron  has  resisted 
90000  Ibs.  per  square  Inch. 
•  By  Commissioners  on  Application  of  Iron  to  Railway  Structure*. 


STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS. 
MISCELLANEOUS  SUBSTANCES. 


97 


Lbs. 

| 

100 

*£ 

80 
414 
24 
HQ 

li- 
2346 
8500 
140 

„,'.':: 

830 

Lbs. 

Brick,  well  burned-  
•«       flre  
"       inferior  ....  | 

Cement,  blue  stone  
"            li  V'  1  rau  lt>*..........  .  . 
riarwlch  
"           Portland,  6  mos_ 
«•          Sheppy  
"          Portland  1,  sand  3 
Chalk 

I.illH'StolH*  * 

Marble,  Italian  ~  
44        white  _ 
Mortar,  12  years  old  
Plaster  of  Paris  ...... 

670 

S 

"SS 

72 
9000 

i  m 

.-iTiMiH 

JK 

as2 

8 
8 

7600 

Rope,  Manilla  . 
hemp,  tarred  _ 

Sandstone,  fine  grain  
Blate 

Ohms,  crown  
Gutta-percha  „  

Stone,  bath  

»  aa±:::::=::-:: 

"               "     mortar  
Ivory  „  ..  

"      Portland...  | 
Whalebone  

Leather  bflts  

COMPOSITIONS. 


Lt*.  || 

Lbs. 

12000 

«.H.«) 

.--.Km 
11000 
48700 

Gold  5,  Copper  1_  - 

50000    Copper  10,  Tin  1  
42000           r     8.  Tin  1.  gun-metal 
18000           "       8,  "     1.  small  bars 
17608    Tin  10,  Antimony  1  

5678S  II  Yellow  metal  

"      yeliow".".'"!.'. 

Bronze,  least  
greatest  

WOODS. 


Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Bet-c'h 

14000 

ir,  " 

Maple  

UBOO 

llr>()0 

"      English  „  

Itll.dO 

IViv                           .           ..    .. 

i  p  ..  >.  . 

I   ••"') 

Cedar 

11400 

"     African 

UOOO 

Chestnut,  sweet  «... 
Cvpress  ~-  
Deal,  Christiana  
Elm                 

N>oOO 

MM 

12IIK) 
l:>«00 

Pear  ™  
Pine,  pitch  „.... 
44       larch  _ 
"       American  white 

'88 

lLlH.,1 

iSS 

2VHK) 

7000 

Llenum-vltse  - 

ll-'"> 

Hpruoe,  white  

ln--.ll 

2>iVX) 

woo 

Mahogany  

21000 

T.ak 

11  "<} 

Spanish  

uooo 

avo 

\Vnlnut  
Willow  

& 

98 


STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS. 


RESULTS   OF  EXPERIMENTS  ON  THE  TENSILE   STRENGTH  OF 
WROUGHT  IRON  TIE  RODS. 


Common  English  Iron,  l/5  Inches  in  Diameter. 

Description  of  Connection. 

Weight. 

Semicircular  hook  fitted  to  a  circular  and  welded  eye  
Two  semicircular  hooks  hooked  together  „ 

Lbs. 

MIHH) 

J6220 
29120 
4H160 
MOM 

Right-angled  hook  or  goose-neck  fitted  into  a  cylindrical  eye 
Two  links  or  welded  eyes  connected  together  
Straight  rod  without  any  connection  articulation.  

Iron  bars  when  cold  rolled  are  materially  stronger  than  when  only 
hot  rolled,  the  difference  being  In  some  cases  as  great  as  3  to  2, 

WIRE  ROPES. 

RESULT   OF  EXPERIMENTS   ON  THE   TENSILE  STRENGTH  OF 
IRON  AND  STEEL  WIRE  ROPES. 


s 


PI 


Ins. 

if 


Lbs. 

il 


Lbs. 
13440 

44800 


Ins. 

% 


Ins. 

1 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 
33600 

56000 


EXTENSION  OF  CAST-IRON  BARS  WHEN  SUSPENDED 
VERTICALLY. 

1  Inch  Square  and  10  Feet  In  Length.    Weight  applied  at  one  end. 


1058 
2117 


Ins. 

.0014 


.0190 


Ins. 


.0000  lf> 
.OOUUW 


Ins. 

am 

.0871 


Ins. 

.00265 
.OOS55 
.02555 


Steel.— The  tensile  strength  of  steel  increases  by  reheating  and 
rolling  up  to  the  second  operation,  but  decreases  after  that. 

The  relative  resistance  of  wrought  iron  and  copper  to  tension 
and  compression  is  as  100  to  54.5. 

Transverse  Strength.— The  Transverse  or  Lateral  Strs.ngth  of 
any  Bar,  J3eam,  Rod,  etc.,  is  in  proportion  to  the  product  of  its 


STRENGTH    OP    MATERIALS.  99 

breadth  and  the  square  of  its  depth;  in  like-sided  beams,  bars,  etc., 
it  is  as  the  cube  of  the  diameter  of  the  section. 

Wh,n  one  end  is  fixed  and  the  other  projecting,  the  strength  is  in- 
versrly  as  tin-  distance  of  the  weight  from  the  section  acted  upon; 
and  tlic  strain  upon  any  section  is  directly  as  the  distance  of  tlm 
weight  from  that  section. 

When  both  ends  are  supported  only,  the  strength  Is  4  times  greater 
for  an  equal  length,  when  the  weight  is  applied  in  the  middle  be- 
tween the  supports,  than  if  one  end  only  is  fixed. 

When  both  end»  art,  fixed,  the  strength  Is  6  times  greater  for  an 
equal  length,  when  the  weight  is  applied  in  the  middle,  than  if  one 
end  only  Ts  fixed. 

The  strength  of  any  beam,  bar,  etc.,  to  support  a  weight  in  the 
centre  of  it,  when  tha  end  re*t*  merely  upon  two  supports,  compared 
to  one  when  the  ends  are  fixed,  is  as  2  to  3. 

When  the  weight  or  strain  is  uniformly  distributed,  the  weight  or 
strain  that  can  be  supported,  compared  with  that  when  the  weight 
or  strain  is  applied  at  one  end  or  in  the  middle  between  the  sup- 
ports, is  as  2  to  1. 

In  metals,  the  less  the  dimension  of  the  side  of  a  beam,  etc.,  or 
the  diameter  of  a  cylinder,  the  greater  its  proportionate  transverse 
strength.  This  is  in  consequence  of  their  having  a  greater  propor- 
tion of  chilled  or  hammered  surface  compared  to  their  elements  of 
strength,  resulting  from  dimensions  alone. 

The  strength  of  a  cylinder,  compared  to  a  square  of  like  diame- 
ter or  sides,  is  as  6.25  to  8.  The  strength  of  a  holloa  cylinder  to 
that  of  a  solid  cylinder,  of  the  same  length  and  volume,  is  as  the 
greater  diameter  of  the  former  is  to  the  diameter  of  the  latter. 

Thf  strength  of  an  equilateral  triangle,  fixed  at  one  end  and  loaded 
at  the  other,  having  an  edge  up,  compared  to  a  square  of  the  same 
area,  is  as  22  to  27;  and  the  strength  of  an  eu trilateral  triangle, 
having  an  edge  down,  compared  to  one  with  an  edge  up,  is  as  10  to  7. 

NOTE.— In  these  comparisons,  the  beam,  bar,  etc.,  Is  considered 
as  one  end  being  fixed,  the  weight  suspended  from  the  other.  In 
Barlow  and  other  authors  the  comparison  is  made  when  the  beam, 
etc. ,  rested  upon  supports.  Hence  the  stress  is  contrariwise. 

Dt'tru*ion  is  the  resistance  that  the  particles  or  fibres  of  materials 
oppose  to  their  sliding  upon  each  other.  Punching  and  shearing 
are  detrusive  strains. 

7)  jl  ction.—  When  a  bar,  beam  etc.,  Is  deflected  by  a  cross-strain, 
the  side  of  the  beam,  etc.,  which  is  bounded  by  the  concave  sur. 
face,  is  compressed,  and  the  opposite  side  is  extended. 

In  atones  and  cast  metal*,  the  resistance  to  compression  is  greater 
than  tin-  resistance  to  extension. 

In  ir»t>ds,  the  resistance  to  extension  is  greater  than  the  resistance 
to  compression. 

The  general  law  regarding  d*flfftion  is,  that  it  increases,  cceteru 
paribut,  directly  as  the  cube  of  the  length  of  the  beam,  bar,  etc., 
and  inversely  as  the  breadth  and  cube  of  the  depth. 


100  STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS. 

The  resistance  of  flexure  of  a  body  at  its  cross-section  is  very 
nearly  9-10  of  its  tensile  resistance. 

The  gt-iffcjtt  bar  or  beam  that  can  be  cut  out  of  a  cylinder  is  that  of 
which  the  depth  is  to  the  breadth  as  the  square  root  of  3  to  1 ;  the 
strongest,  as  the  square  root  of  2  to  1 ;  and  the  most  resilient,  that 
•which  has  the  breadth  and  depth  equal. 

RELATIVE  STIFFNESS  OF  MATEEIALS  TO  RESIST  A 
TRANSVERSE  STRAIN. 

Ash 089  White  pine 1 

Beech 073  Yellow  pine 087 

Elm 079  Wrought  iron 1.3 

Oak 095  Cast  iron 1. 

The  strength  of  a  rectangular  beam  in  an  inclined  portion,  to  re- 
sista  vertical  stress,  is  to  its  strength  in  a  liori/.oiital  position  astho 
square  of  radius  to  the  square  of  the  cosine  of  elevation:  that  is,  as 
the  square  of  the  length  of  the  beam  to  the  square  ot  the  distance 
between  its  points  of  support,  measured  upon  a  horizontal  plane. 

Experiments  upon  bars  of  cast  iron,  1,  2,  and  3  inches  square,  give 
a  result  of  transverse  strength  of  447,  348,  and  338  Ibs.  respectively; 
being  in  the  ratio  of  1,  .78,  and  .756. 

The  strongest  rectangular  bar  or  beam  that  can  be  cut  out  of  a  cyl- 
inder is  one  of  which  the  squares  of  the  breadth  and  depth  of  it,  and 
the  diameter  of  the  cylinder,  are  as  1,  2,  and  3  respectively. 

The i  ratio  of  the  crushing  to  the  tranxwrse  strength  is  nearly  the 
same  in  glass,  stone,  and  marble,  including  the  hardest  and  softest 
kinds. 

Green  sand  iron  coatings  are  6  per  cent,  stronger  than  dry,  and  30 
percent,  stronger  than  chilled;  but  when  the  castings  are  chilled 
and  annealed,  a  gain  of  115  per  cent,  is  attained  over  those  made  in 
green  sand. 

Chilling  the  under  side  of  cast  iron  very  materially  increases  its 
strength. 

WOODS. — Beams  of  wood,  when  laid  with  their  annual  or  annular 
layers  vertical,  are  stronger  than  when  they  are  laid  horizontal,  in 
the  proportion  of  8  to  7. 

Woods  are  de.n*er  at  the  root*  and  at  the  centre  of  their  trunks. 
Their  strength  decreases  with  the  decrease  of  their  density. 


STRENGTH  OP  MATERIALS. 


101 


TRANSVERSE  STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS,  DEDUCED  FROM 

EXPERIMENTS. 

Reduced  to  the  uniform  Measure  of  One  Inch  Square,  and  one  Foot  In 
Length ;  Weight  suspended  from  one  End. 


£ 

|| 

»« 

J 

MATERIALS. 

|| 

MATERIALS. 

If 

11 

I! 

P 

>l 

METALS. 

JH 

Jbt 

means  of 
Cast  iron,    fourdivi- 

507  125tolflO 
6fill55  "  210' 

WROUGHT  IRON. 

700 

Atnerlcan    slons    of 

,  ••  -JM 

American  ~...  < 

650  160to209 

grades  

772 

M  -  M 

600| 

"  mean  by  MH)  Wade 

BB1 

170  "  225, 

English 

400  100  "  130 

"  West  Pt.  Foundry, 
extreme-  

HO 

250  "325 

550  1S5  "  180 
665    65  "210 

Swedish*.  _.. 

M  English,  Low  Moor, 
cold  blast  ~  
"  Ponkey,  cold  

!7'J 

110  "  HO1 
145  "  1«> 

MIXTUREOFCA8TAND 
WROUGHT  IRON,  etc, 

Cast  Iron.  Blaenavon. 

145 

"  hot  blust,  mean  

500  l-ii  "  Ift5||        "    lOperctofwr't 

... 

175 

11  cold    **         **    -  

51ti  1  ',')  "  170          "  80       "            " 

230 

"  Ystalyfera.  cold  bl't 

77ii  lor,  »  255           ••  60       "            " 

185 

"  mean  of  05  kinds  

600  125  "  16511        "  and  2'X  per  ct 

"mean  of  15  kinds, 
direct    from     the 

of  nick  el,  mean 

"  Stirling.  2d  qu. 

... 

180 
154 

Pig.  cold  blast-  

641  IflO  "  21511         "         »    -  8d   » 

125 

M  planed  bur  

518  ISO"  170  Copper  

"  rouich  bar  

Rteel,  greatest  

1918  M  '•  450  STONES  (American). 

Steel,  pud.lled  (per- 
manent bend)  

WOODS. 

Ash  ^. 
Beech  

m 

}  ." 

170  "225 

Flagging,  blue  
freestone,  Conn  
"          Dorcliester 
N.  Jersey- 

5 

IOJ 

•JM    1 

17  •> 

10 

¥ 

Birch.-       „  

,,,, 

40 

N.  York...- 

.'i. 

8 

Chestnut.  

:• 

53 

Granite,  bine,  coarse.. 

6 

Deal,  Christiana  - 
Hickory  '..".......  .*."*.~*. 

187 

',-' 

45 
80 
55 

"        Qulncy.  Mass. 
STONES  (Ktigllsh). 
Adelaide  marble-  

7- 

IXK*USt    .           ..^.  ..  . 

80 

Arbroath  _  

IT/ 

gvz 

Maple  

m 

tiangor  slate  — 

:i»  ' 

Norwav  pine  „_.. 

1  '  : 

40 

Bath  

-,   > 

IV 

Oak,  African  
••     American  white 
"           M           live.. 

M 

LT> 

50 
50 
65 

(  'alt  li  ness,  paving,  8c. 
;*ornlf»h  granite  
Cralgleth  sandstone... 

& 

lo'.T 

22* 

7 

-    Canadian  

1" 

86 

Darley  sandst.,  Vlct'a 

l.'i 

4 

"     Dant       _  

i  H 

80 

Kentish  rag-  

HJ 

12i 

«     Eng       „. 

1  !•> 

85 

Limestone  

n. 

"          "'       superior 
PUch  pine  

m 

;•'• 

45 
45 

50 

Uangollen  slate  
'Park  Hprlng  sandst'e 
Portland  oolite-  

u 

1.4 

7 

Riga  fir 

•M 

•',„ 

30 
60 

Valentia,  paving,  Irel 
Welsh,          " 

r,-  .1 

va 

23 

55 

Teak  

White  pine  
"        American 

H 
M 

80 
45 

Yorkshire,  bine  
landing... 

HJ 

Whltewood  

114 

88 

pavlne  10.' 

3$ 

INCREASE  IN  STRENGTH  OF  SEVERAL  WOODS  BY  SEASONING. 

Ash 44.7  percent.  I  Elm 12.3  per  cent,  I  White plne....9  percent. 

Beech 01.9        ••         |  Oak .26.1        ••          | 

•  With  840  Ibs.  the  deflection  was  1  Inch,  and  the  elasticity  of  the 
metal  destroyed. 


102  STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS. 

CONCBETES,  CEMENTS,  ETC. 


MATERIALS. 

| 

MATERIALS. 

' 

|| 

CONCRETES  (English). 

•l  1 

.     BRICKS  (English). 
Best  stork       

11  S 

"  sand,  .'{parts;  lime,  1  part 

CKMENT8  (English) 

.7 

Fire-brick  
Vcw  brick     

11. 

107 

-  i 

<  )1>I  lirirk                                 

'•  1 

Portland    ...                            { 

::7..-> 

Stock-brick,  well  burned  

u 

Bheppy  

loj 
r,. 

TRANSVERSE  STEENGTH  OF  CAST  IRON  BAES  AND  OAK  BEAMS 
OF  VARIOUS  FIGURES. 

Reduced  to  the  uniform  Measure  of  One  Inch  Square  of  Sectional 
Area,  and  One  Foot  in  Length.  Fixed  at  one  end,  Weight  suspended 
from  the  other. 


FORM  OF  BAR  OR 
BEAM. 

Breaking 
Weight. 

FORM  OF  BAR  OR 
BEAM. 

Breaking 
Weight.  I 

CAST    IRON. 

Lbs 

A  Equilateral  triangle,  an 

Lbs 
560 

Square  
•    Square    diagonal  verti- 

678 

V  Equilateral  triangle,  an 

058 

cal 

568 

£fc     Cylinder 

57.4i 

T2ins.  deep  X  2  ins.  wide 
X   268  ins  depth 

2068 

O    Hollow  cylinder;  greater 
diameter  twice  that  of 

7JM 

•     2  ins.  deep  X  2  ins.  wide 
J.       X  .268  ins.  depth. 

565 

8       Rectangular  prism,  2  Ins. 
deep  X  14  in.  depth  
"  3  ins.deep  X  Xln.depth 

"4       "          XX    " 

1456 
2892 

l>ii.3_' 

A  Equilateral  triangle,  an 
edge  up  
V  Equilateral  triangle,  an 
edge  down  

114 
130 

STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS. 


103 


TBANSVEBSE  STBENGTH  OF  SOLID  AND  HOLLOW  CYLINDERS 
OF  VARIOUS  MATERIALS. 

One  foot  in  length.     Fired  at  one  end ;  Weight  suspended  from  the 
other. 


MATERIALS. 

1| 

s5 

Hollow  Internal 
Diameter. 

Breaking  Weight 

Breaking  Weight 
for  I  inch  external 
Diameter  and  pro- 
port  ionate  Inter- 
nal Diameter. 

WOODS. 

Ash 

Ins. 
2. 

Ins. 

Lbs. 
085 

Lbs. 

88 

2. 

1. 

IM 

75 

Fir* 

2. 

T72 

97 

White  pine  

ifJBTALa!"*" 

Cast  Iron,  cold  blast  

STONE  WARE. 

Rolled  pipe  of  fine  clay  

| 

8. 
2.87 

1.928 

75 
610 

12000 
190 

a 

Ml 
8 

Brick-work.— A  brick  arch,  having  a  rise  of  2  feet,  and  a  span 
of  15  feet  9  inches,  and  2  feet  in  width,  with  a  depth  at  its  crown  of 
4  inches,  bore  358,400  Ibs.  laid  along  its  centre. 

To  Compute  the  Transverse  Strength  of  a  Rectangular 
Beam  or  Bar.. — WHEN  A  BEAM  OR  BAR  is  FIXED  AT  ONE  END, 
AND  LOADED  AT  THE  OTHER. — Rule. — Multiply  the  talus  of  the 
inai.-i  inl  in  the  preceding  tables,  or  as  may  be  ascertained,  by  the 
lir.M.iih  and  square  of  the  depth  in  inches,  and  divide  the  product 
by  the  length  in  feet. 

NOTE— When  the  beam  is  loaded  uniformly  throughout  Its  length, 
the  result  must  be  doubled. 

EXAMPLE.— What  are  the  weights  each  that  a  cast  and  wrought  iron 
bar,  2  inches  square  and  projecting  80  inches  In  length,  will  bear  with- 
out permanent  injury? 

The  vnluet  for  cast  and  wrought  iron  in  this  and  the  following  cal- 
culat  ioiiH  are  assumed  to  be  225  and  180. 

H.-in-o  225X2X2*=  1800,  which,-«-2^=720  Ibs.;  and  180x2x2*=l«0,  which, 
+2.5=576  Ibs. 

IP  TTTE  DIMENSIONS  OF  A  BEAM  OR  BAR  ARE  REQJTTREP  TO 
SUPPORT  A  GIVEN  WEIGHT  AT  ITS  END. — Rule. — Divide  the  pro- 
duct of  the  weight  and  the  length  in  feet  by  the  valut  of  the  ma- 


•  An  inch-square  batten  from  the  same  plank  as  this  specimen  broke 


104  STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS. 

terial,  and  the  quotient  will  give  the  product  of  the  breadth  and 
the  square  of  the  depth. 

EXAMPLE.— What  Is  the  depth  of  a  wrought-lron  beam,  2  Inches 
broad,  necessary  to  support  576  Ibs.  suspended  ut  30  inches  from  the 
fixed  end? 

— =8,  whlch,-i-2  Ins.  for  the  breadth=4,  and  J  4=2  Ins.,   the 

180 
breadth. 

WHEN  A  BEAM  OR  BAR  is  FIXED  AT  BOTH  ENDS,  AND  LOADED 
IN  THE  MIDDLE. — Rule. — Multiply  the  value  of  the  material  by  6 
times  the  breadth  and  the  square  of  the  depth  in  inches,  and  divide 
the  product  by  the  length  in  feet 

NOTE.— When  the  beam  Is  loaded  uniformly  throughout  its  length, 
the  result  must  be  doubled. 

EXAMPLE— What  weight  will  a  bar  of  cast  iron,  2  inches  square  and  5 
feet  In  length,  support  In  the  middle,  without  permanent  injury? 

225X2X6X2*=10800,  whlch,-5-5=2160  Ibs. 

OR,  IF  THE  DIMENSIONS  OF  A  BEAM  OR  BAR  ARE  REQUIRED 
TO  SUPPORT  A  GIVEN  \VKIGHT  IN  THK  MIDDI.K.  I'.I:T\VI;I:X  THE 
FIXED  ENDS. — Rule. — Divide  the  product  of  the  weight  and  the 
length  in  feet  by  6  times  the  value,  of  the  material,  and  the  quotient 
will  give  the  product  of  the  breadth  and  the  square  of  the  depth. 

EXAMPLE.— What  dimensions  will  a  cast  ir^n  square  bar  5  feet  in 
length  require  to  support  without  permanent  injury  a  stress  ol  2160  Ibs? 
2160X5  10800 

= =8,  which,-*-2  ins.  for  the  assumed  breadth,=4,  and  J  4=- 

225X6      1350 
2  ins  the  depth. 

WHEN  THE  BREADTH  OR  DEPTH  is  REQUIRED. — Rule. — Divide 
the  product  obtained  by  the  preceding  rules  by  the  square  of  the 
depth,  and  the  quotient  is  the  breadth;  or  by  the  breadth,  and  the 
square  root  of  the  quotient  is  the  depth. 

ILLUSTRATION.— If  12S  Is  the  product,  and  the  depth  is  8:  then  128-5-8* 
=2,  the  breadth.  Also,  123-2=64,  and  ,J64=8,  the  depth. 

WHEN  THE  WEIGHT  is  NOT  IN  THE  MIDDLE  BETWEEN  THK 

ENDS. — Rule. — Multiply  the  i-'ilue  of  the  material  by  3  times  the 
length  in  feet,  and  the 'breadth  and  square  of  the  depth  in  indies, 
and  divide  the  product  by  twice  the  product  of  the  distances  of  the 
weight,  or  stress  from  either  end. 

EXAMPLE.— What  is  the  weight  a  cost-iron  bar.  fixed  at  both  ends,  2 
ins.  square  and  5  feet  in  length,  will  bear  without  permanent  injury,  2 
feet  from  one  end? 

225X3X5X2X2*    27000 

• = =2250  Ibs. 

2X2X3  12 

WHEN  A  BEAM  OR  BAR  is  SUPPORTED  AT  BOTH  ENDS,  AND 
LOADED  IN  THE  MIDDLE.— Rule..— Multiply  the  value  of  the  ma. 
terial  by  4  times  the  breadth  and  the  square'of  the  depth  in  inches, 
and  divide  the  product  by  the  length  in  feet. 


STRENGTH    OP    MATERIALS.  105 

NOTE.— When  the  beam  Is  loaded  uniformly  throughout  Its  length, 
the  result  must  be  doubled. 

EXAMPLE.— What  weight  will  a  cast-Iron  bar,  5  feet  between  the  sup- 
ports, and  2  Ins.  square,  bear  In  the  middle,  without  permanent  In- 
jury? 

225X2X4X^=7200.  which, +5=.  1440  Ibs. 

OR,  IF  THE  DISTENSIONS  ARE  REQUIRED  TO  SUPPORT  A  GIYEN 
WEIGHT.— Rule.— Divide  the  product  of  the  weight  and  length  in 
feet  by  3  times  the  vnlue  of  the  material,  and  the  quotient  will  give 
the  product  of  the  breadth,  and  the  square  of  the  depth. 

WHEN  THE  WEIGHT  is  IN  THE  MIDDLE  BETWEEN  THE  SUP- 
PORTS.— Rule. — Multiply  the  valu*  of  the  material  by  the  length  in 
feet,  and  the  breadth,  and  the  square  of  the  depth  in  inches,  and 
divide  the  product  by  the  product  of  the  distances  of  the  weight,  or 
stress  from  either  support. 

EXAMPLE.— What  weight  will  a  cast-iron  bar,  2  Ins.  square  and  5 
feet  in  length,  support  without  permanent  Injury,  at  a  distance  of  2 
feet  from  one  end,  or  sunport? 

225X5X2X2*    9000 


-=1500  Ibs. 
2x(5-2)          6 

To  Compnte  the  Pressure  upon  the  Ends  or  upon  the 
Supports.— Riik.—\.  Divide  the  product  of  the  weight  and  its 
distance  from  the  nearest  end  or  support  by  the  whole  length,  and 
the  quotient  will  give  the  pressure  upon  the  end  or  support  farthest 
from  the  weight. 

2.  Divide  the  product  of  the  weight  and  its  distance  from  the 
farthest  end,  or  support,  by  the  whole  length,  and  the  quotient  will 
give  the  pressure  upon  the  end  or  support  nearest  the  weight. 

EXAMPLE.— Whnt  is  the  pressure  upon  the  supports  In  the  case  of  the 
pr,.,-..(liug  example? 

1500X2                                                                                                  1500X8 
=600  Ibs.  upon  support  farthest  from  the  weight; —900  Ibs. 

5  6 

upon  support  nearest  to  the  weight. 

WHEN  A  BEAM  OR  BAR,  FTXED  OR  SUPPORTED  AT  BOTH  ENDS, 
BEARS  TWO  WEIGHTS  AT  UNEQUAL  DISTANCES  FROM  THE  ENDS. 
— Let  m  and  n  represent  distances  of  greatest  and  least  weights 
from  their  nearest  end,  W  and  10  greatest  and  least  weights,  L 
whole  length,  I  distance  from  least  weight  to  farthest  end,  and  V 
distance  of  greatest  weight  from  farthest  end. 

mXW    IX  w  nxu>    TxW 

Then h pressure  at  w  end,  and 1 pressure  at  W 

L          L  Li          L 

end. 

ILLTTSTRATION.— A  beam  10  feet  In  length,  having  both  ends  flxed  in 
a  wall,  bears  two  weight*,  viz.,  one  of  1000  IDA.  at  4  feet  from  one  of  its 
ends,  and  the  other  of  2000  Ibs.  at  4  feet  from  the  other  end ;  what  Is  the 
pressure  upon  each  end? 

4X2"00    6X1000                                                                4X1000    6X2000 
H =1400  Ibs.  pressure  upon  w  end, 1 =1600  Ibs. 

10  10  10  10 

pressure  at  W  end. 


106  STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS. 

WHEN  THE  PLANE  OP  THE  BEAM  OR  BAR  PROJECTS  OBLIQUE- 
LY UPWARD  OR  DOWNWARD.  —  WHKN  FIXKD  AT  ONI;  KND  AND 
LOADED  AT  THE  OTHER.—  .ftufc.—  Multiply  tin-  /-.//'/•  <>f  the  nuite- 
rial  by  the  breadth  and  square  of  the  depth  in  inches,  and  divide 
the  product  by  the  product  of  the  length  m  feet  and  the  cosine  of 
the  angle  of  elevation  or  depression. 

NOTE.—  When  the  weight  is  laid  uniformly  along  it*  length,  the  re- 
Bait  muM  be  doubled. 

EXAMPLE.—  What  is  the  weight  an  ash-beam,  5  feet  in  length,  3  lns« 
square,  and  projecting  upward  at  an  angle  of  7°  l^,  will  bear  without 
permanent  injury  ? 

55X3X3»=1485,  which,-i-5X  cos.  7°  lo',=1485-=-5x.992=299.39  Ibs. 

To  Compute  the  Transverse  Strength  of  Cylinders,  El- 
lipses, etc.—  WHEN  A  CYUNPKK.  Ui-.t  TANUI.K  (THI.  DIAGONAL 
BEING  VERTICAL,)  HOLLOW  CYLINDER,  OR  BEAMS  HAVING  M.r- 
TION8  OF  AN  ELLIPSE,  ARE  KITHKR  FIXED  AT  ONK  KXD  AND 
LOADED  AT  THE  OTHER,  OR  SUPPORTED  AT  BOTH  ENDS,  THE 
LOAD  APPLIED  IN  THE  MIDDLE,  OR  BETWEEN  THE  SUPI'OKTs.  - 
Ride.  —  Proceed  in  all  cases  as  if  for  a  rectangular  beam,  taking  for 
the  breaath  and  depth,  and  value  of  the  material,  as  follows: 

Cylinder,  diameter8  x.6;  Rectangle,  *  side1  X.7;  Hollow  Cylinder 
(dlam.*—  dlam.*)  X-6;  Ellipse,  transverse  diam.  veitlcal  conj.  X  trans- 
verse*, x.6;  and  Ellipse,  conj.  diam.  vert,  transverse  X  conj.*  X.6  of 
value. 

When  an  Equilaterinl  Trianffle,  or  T  Beam.  RtTLB.—  Proceed  In  all 
cases  as  if  for  a  rectangular  beam,  taking  the  following  proportions  of 
the  value  of  the  material. 

Fixed  at  one  or    (Eqnllaternl  triangle,  edge  up,       6Xd»,  X.2   of  Value. 
h  /*      ^          \  Equilateral  triangle,  edge  down,  6x«P.  X  34 
both  end*.         ^-p  beam  or  ^  edge  down>  bx&,  X-42 

Supported  at      (Equilateral  triangle,  edge  up,       bx&,  X.84        " 
•<  Equilateral  triangle,  edge  down,  6xd*.  X.2          " 
both  ends.  r  or  bar.    *      edge  up.       6Xd»,  X.42        « 


To  Compute  the  Diameter  of  a  Solid  Cylinder  to  Support 
a  Given  Weight.—  WHEN  FIXKD  AT  ONK  END,  AND  LOADKDAT 
THE  OTHER.  —  Rule.—  Multiply  the  weight  to  be  supported  in 
pounds  by  the  length  of  the  cylinder  in  feet;  divide  the  product  by 
.6  of  the  value  of  the  material,  and  the  cube  root  of  the  quotient 
will  give  the  diameter. 

NOTE.—  When  the  cylinder  is  loaded  uniformly  throughout  its  length, 
the  cube  root  of  half  the  quotient  will  give  tbe  diameter. 

EXAMPLE.—  What  should  he  the  diameter  of  a  cast-iron  cylindrical 
beam,  8  ins.  in  length,  to  support  1-5000  Ibs.  without  permanent  injury? 

15000X.66 
8  ins.=.68  feet;  --  =74.07;  and  f  74.07=4.2. 

.«   ±r> 

WHET*  FIXED  AT  BOTH  ENDS,  AND  LOADED  rN  THE  MIDDLE.— 
Rule.  —  Multiply  the  weight  to  be  supported  in  pounds  by  the  length 

The  strength  of  a  Rectangle,  the  diagonal  beint?  vertical,  compared 
to  that  of  its  circumscribing  rectangle,  when  tbe  direction  of  the  strain 
is  parallel  to  the  side  of  it,  is  as  2.45  to  1. 


STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS.  107 

of  the  cylinder  between  the  supports  In  feet;  divide  the  product  by 
.«;  of  the  value  of  the  inatrruil,  and  the  cube  root  of  \£  of  the 
quotient  will  give  the  diameter. 

NOTE.—  When  the  cylinder  Is  loaded  uniformly  along  Its  length,  the 
cube  root  of  half  the  quotient  will  give  the  diameter. 

EXAMPLE.—  What  should  be  the  diameter  of  a  cast-iron  cylinder,  2 
feet  between  the  support*,  that  will  support  1930S  Ibs.  without  per- 
manent injury? 


.6X225 

WHEN  SUPPORTED  AT  BOTH  ENDS,  AND  LOADED  IN  THE  MID- 
DLE.— Rule.—  Multiply  the  weight  to  be  supported  in  pounds  by 
the  length  of  the  cylinder  between  the  supports  in  feet;  divide  the 
product  by  .6  of  the  value  of  material,  and  the  cube  root  of  \£  of  the 
quotient  will  give  the  diameter. 

NOTE.—  When  the  cylinder  Is  loaded  uniformly  along  Its  length,  the 
cube  root  of  half  quotient  will  give  the  diameter. 

EXAMPLE.—  What  should  be  the  diameter  of  a  cast-iron  cylinder,  2 
feet  between  the  supports,  that  will  support  54000  Ibs.  without  per- 
manent injury  ? 

54000X2  800 

-  -800,  and  f  —  =5.85  ins. 
.X225  4 

And  what  its  diameter  If  loaded  uniformly  along  its  length? 
SOO-i-2 
-  -100,  and  f  100=4.64  ins. 

To  Compute  the  Relative  Value  of  Materials  to  resist  a 
Transverse  Strain.  —  Let  V  represent  this  value  in  a  Beam,  liar, 
or  Cylinder,  one  foot  in  length,  and  one  inch  square,  side,  or  in 
diameter;  W  the  weight;  ithe  length  in  feet;  6  the  breadth,  and  d 
the  depth  in  inches;  m  the  distance  of  the  weight  from  one  end; 
and  n  the  distance  of  it  from  the  other  in  feet 

NOTE.—  In  cylinders,  for  6  d*  put  d*. 

IW 

1.  Fixed  at  one  End,  weight  suspended  from  the  other,  -  —  V. 

6  d* 
I  W 

2.  Fixed  at  both  Ends,  weight  suspended  from  the  middle.  -  =V. 

664* 

8.  Supported  at  both   Ends,  weight  suspended  from  the  middle 

-  =V. 
46d* 

4.  Supported  at  both  Ends,  weight  suspended  at  any  other  point  than 

mn  W 

the  middle,  -  =V. 
I  bet* 

5.  Fixed  at  both  Ends,  weight  suspended  at  any  other  point  than 

2m  n  W 
the  middle,  -  =V. 


108  STRENGTH    OP    MATERIALS. 

From  which  formula;,  the  weight  that  may  he  borne,  or  any  of 
the  dimensions,  may  be  computed  by  the  following: 

Vdb»         V6d»      MV  IW 

1. =W; =l\ =b:  J =d.    In  rectangular  beams,  eto 

/  '    W         Vd»  6V 

IW 
6andd=f . 

66d»V          66d»V        IW  IW 

2. =W- =1; =6;  J **d.  In  rectangular  beams, 

I  '      W  6d»V         *66V 

IW 
etc.,  6  and  d=^ . 

46d*V  46d»V        IW  IW 

8. =W; =1: =b:  J =d.  In  rectangular  beams. 

I  W  4d»V  46V 

IW 
etc.,  6  and  d=f . 

lbd*V         mnW       mnW  mnW 

4. =W, =1; =6;  J =«t  In  rectangular  beams, 

win  6d*V        l&V  J6V 

mnW 

etc.,  6  and  d=f . 

IV 

2mnW       2mnW          2mnW 

=W: =1; =*;J =A    In  rectangular 

86d»V        8td«V  SffrV 

2mnW 
beams,  etc..  6  and  d=^ . 

When  the  weight  is  uniformly  distributed,  the  same  formulae  will 
apply,  TV  representing  only  half  the  required  or  given  weight. 

Girders,  Beams,  Lintels,  etc.— The  Transverse  or  Lateral 
Sknugfk  of  any  Girder,  Beam  Brest-summer,  Lintel,  etc.,  is  in  pro- 
portion to  the  product  of  its  breadth  and  the  square  of  its  depth, 
and  also  to  the  area  of  its  cross-section. 

The  best  form  of  section  for  cast-iron  girders  or  beams,  etc.,  is  de- 
duced from  the  experiments  of  Mr.  K.  DodgktaMOD,  and  such  as 
have  this  form  of  section  i  are  known  as  Hodgkinson's. 

The  rule  deduced  from  his  experiments  directs  that  the  area  of 
the  bottom  flange  should  be  6  times  that  of  the  top  ihin-if— flanges 
coiiiUM  ted  by  u  thin  vertical  \vcb,  sufficiently  rigid,  however,  to  give 
the  requisite  lateral  stillness,  and  tapering  both  upward  and  down- 
ward from  the  neutral  axis:  and  in  order  to  set  aside  the  risk  of  an 
imperfect  casting,  by  any  great  disproportion  between  the  web  and 
the  flanges,  it  should  be  tapered  so  as  to  connect  with  them,  with  a 
thickness  corresponding  to  that  of  the  flange. 

As  both  cast  and  wrought  iron  resist  ern-Oiing  or  compression 
with  a  greater  force  than  extension,  it  follows  that  the  flan  ire  of  a 
girder  or  beam  of  either  of  these  metals,  which  is  subjected  to  a 
crushing  strain,  according  as  the  girder  or  beam  is  supported  at  both 


STRENGTH    OP    MATERIALS.  109 

ends,  or  fixed  at  one  end,  should  be  of  less  area  than  the  other  flange, 
which  is  subjected  to  extension  or  a  tonsil*-  strain. 

When  girders  are  subjected  to  impulse*,  and  are  used  to  sustain 
vfbntfng  l<>;tils,  as  in  bridges,  etc.,  the  best  proportion  between  the 
top  and  bottom  flange  is  as  1  to  4:  as  a  general  rule,  they  should  be 
as  narrow  and  deep  as  practicable,  and  should  never  be  deflected  to 
more  than  one  five-hundredth  of  their  length. 

In  Public  Halls,  Churches  and  Buildings  where  the  weight  of  peo- 
ple alone  is  to  be  provided  for,  an  estimate  of  175  Ibs.  per  square 
foot  of  floor  surface  is  sufficient  to  provide  for  the  weight  of  floor- 
ing and  the  load  upon  it. 

In  churches,  buildings,  etc.,  the  weight  to  be  provided  for  should 
be  estimated  at  that  which  may  at  any  time  be  placed  thereon,  or 
which  at  any  time  may  bear  upon  any  portion  of  their  floors;  the 
usual  allowance,  however,  is  for  a  weight  of  280  Ibs.  per  square 
foot  of  floor  surface  for  stores  and  factories,  and  175  Ibs.  per  square 
foot  when  the  weight  of  people-alone  is  to  be  provided  for. 

In  all  uses,  such  as  in  buildings  and  bridges,  where  the  structure 
is  exposed  to  sudden  impulses,  the  load  or  stress  to  be  sustained 
should  not  exceed  from  1-5  to  1-6  of  the  breaking  weight  of  the 
material  employed;  but  when  the  load  is  uniform  or  the  stress  quies- 
cent, it  may  be  increased  to  ' .,  and  '  4  of  the  breaking  weight. 

An  op«n-web  girder  or  bf.am,  etc.,  Is  to  be  estimated  in  its  resist- 
ance on  the  same  principle  as  if  it  had  a  solid  web.  In  cast  metals, 
allowance  is  to  be  made  for  the  loss  of  strength  due  to  the  unequal 
contraction  in  cooling  of  the  web  and  flanges. 

In  cast-iron,  the  mean  resistance  to  crvthing  or  ttrttnsion  is  as  4.3 
to  1,  and  in  wrought  iron  as  1.35  to  1;  hence  the  mass  of  metal  below 
the  neutral  axis  will  be  greatest  in  these  proportions  when  the  stress 
is  intermediate  between  the  ends  or  supports  of  the  girders,  etc. 

Wooden  girder*  or  bfsmu,  when  sawed  in  two  or  more  pieces,  and 
have  slips  set  between  them,  and  the  whole  bolted  together,  are 
made  stiffer  by  the  operation,  and  are  rendered  less  liable  to  decay. 

Oirders  cast  with  a  face  up  are  stronger  than  when  cast  on  a  side, 
in  the  proportion  to  1  to  .96,  and  they  are  strongest  also  when  cast 
with  the  bottom  flange  up. 

The  following  results  of  the  resistances  of  metals  will  show  how 
the  material  should  be  distributed  in  order  to  obtain  the  maximum 
of  strength  with  the  minimum  of  material: 


To  Tension. 

To  Crushing. 

$21.000 

<M  ;..i 

Copper  

1  .T2.000 

•Ji  "Vi 

1*1,000 
117000 

~W  rough  t-  Iron  

J  4-1.000 

[ryw 

4o!ooo 

83,000 

Tin-  best  Iron  has  the  greatest  tensile  strength,  and  the  least  conv 
pressive  or  crushing. 


110  STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS. 

The  mo/tt  economical  construction  of  a  gird»r  or  beam,  with  ref->r- 
ence  to  attaining  the  greatest  strength  with  the  least  material,  is  as 
follows:  The  outline  of  the  top,  bottom  and  sides  .shoul  1  l>e  a  curve 
of  various  forms,  according  M  tin-  hr-adth  or  depth  throughout  is 
equal,  and  as  the  girder  or  beam  i.s  loaded  oulyat  one  end,  or  in  the 
middle,  or  uniformly  throughout 

To  Compute  the  Dimensions  and  Form  of  a  Girder  or 
Beam.— WHEN  A  GIRDEU  OH  HKAM  is  FIXKD  AT  ONE  KM».  AND 
LOADED  AT  THE  OTHEH. — 1.  Wh<-n.  th  d  /,th  /.«  uniform,  thrani/kmit 
th  •,  utir ,' I n'jth. — The  section  at  every  point  must  be  in  proportion 
to  the  product  of  the  length,  breadth  Mid  square  of  the  depth,  and 
as  the  s  plan- oi  the  depth  is  in  every  point  the  same,  the  breadth 
must  vary  directly  as  the  length;  consequently,  each  side  of  the 
beam  must  be  a  vertical  plane,  tapering  gradually  to  the  end. 

2.  Whin  th;  breadth  is  uniform  throughout  the  entire  length.— The 
depth  must  vary  as  the  square  root  of  the  length;  hence  the  upper 
or  lower  sides,  or  both,  must  be  determined  by  a  parabolic  curve. 

3.  When  the  section  at  every  point  is  similar— that  is,  a  Circle,  an 
Ellipse,  a  Square,  or  a  Rectangle,  the  sides  of  which  bear  a  fixed  pro- 
portion to  each  other. — The  section  at  every  point  being  a  regular 
ngure,  for  a  circle,  the  diameter  at  every  point  must  be  as  the  cube 
root  of  the  length;  and  for  an  ellipse,  or  a  rectangle,  the  breadth 
and  depth  must  vary  as  the  cube  root  of  the  length. 

WHKN  A  GIRDER  OR  BEAM  is  FIXED  AT  ONE  END  AND  LOADED 
UNIFORMLY  THROUGHOUT  ITS  LENGTH. — 1.  Wh  n  the,  depth  i*  uni- 
form throughout  its  entire  length. — The  breadth  must  increase  as  the 
square  of  the  length. 

2.  When  the  breadth  is  uniform  throughout  its  entire  length.— The 
depth  will  vary  directly  as  the  length. 

3.  When  the  section  at  every  point  is  similar,  as  a  Circl . 
Square,  and  Rectangle. — The  section  at  every  point  being  a  regular 
figure,  the  cube  of  the  depth  must  be  in  the  ratio  of  the  square  of 
the  length. 

WHEN  A  GIRDER  OR  BEAM  is  SUPPORTED  AT  BOTH  ENDS.— 
1.  When  loaded  in  the  middle.— The  constant  of  the  beam,  or  the 
product  of  the  breadth  and  the  square  of  the  depth,  must  be  in  pro- 
portion to  the  distance  from  the  nearest  support;  consequently, 
whether  the  lines  forming  the  brain  are  straight  or  curved,  they 
meet  in  the  centre,  and  of  course  the  two  halves  are  alike:  the 
beam,  therefore,  may  be  considered  as  one  half  the  length,  the 
supported  end  corresponding  with  the  free  end  in  the  case  of  beams, 
one  end  being  fixed,  and  the  middle  of  the  beams  similarly  corres- 
ponding with  the  fixed  end. 

2.  When  thf,  flspth  ii  uniform  throughout.— The  breadth  must  be 
in  the  ratio  of  the  length. 

3.  When  the  breadth  is  uniform  throughout.— The  depth  will  vary 
as  the  square  root  of  the  length. 

4.  When  the  section  at  every  point  ts  similar,  as  a  Circle,  Ellipse, 


STRENGTH    OP    MATERIALS.  Ill 

and  Rectangle.—  T\\e  section  at  every  point  being  a  regular 
figure,  the  cube  of  the  depth  will  be  as  the  square  of  the  distance 

from  tin-  supported  .-ml. 


A  GIRDER  OR  BEAM  is  SUPPORTED  AT  BOTH  ENDS, 
AND  LOADED  UNIFORMLY  THROUGHOUT  ITS  LENGTH.  1.  When 
the  depth  is  uniform.  —  The  breadth  will  be  as  the  product  of  the 
length  of  the  beam  and  the  length  of  it  on  one  side  of  the  given 
point,  less  the  square  of  the  length  on  one  side  of  the  given  point. 

2.  When  thfi  breadth  is  uniform.  —  The  depth  will  be  as  the  square 
root  of  the  product  of  the  length  of  the  beam  and  th«>  length  of  it  on 
on-  siilc  of  the  given  point,  less  the  square  of  the  length  on  one  side 
of  the  given  point 

3.  Whfn  the  section  at  every  point  i»  similar,  as  a  Cirde,  Ellipse, 
Square,  and  Rectangle.  —  The  section  at  every  point  being  a  regular 
figure,  the  cube  of  the  depth  will  be  as  the  product  of  the  length  of 
the  beam  and  the  length  of  it  on  one  side  of  the  given  point,  less  the 
square  of  the  length  on  one  side  of  the  given  point. 

GENERAL  DEDUCTIONS  FROM  THE  EXPERIMENTS  OF  STEPHEN- 
BON,  FAIKHAIIIX,  CUIJITT,  HUGHES,  ETC.  Fairbairn  shows  in  his 
experiments  that  with  a  stress  of  about  12,  :?•_'<)  ll>s.  JMT  square  inch 
on  lit  inm,  and  28,000  Ibs.  on  wrought  iron,  the  sets  and  elonga- 
tions are  nearly  equal  to  each  other. 

A  cast-iron  beam  will  be  bent  to  one-third  of  its  breaking  weight 
if  the  load  is  laid  on  gradually,  and  one-sixth  of  it,  if  laid  on  at 
one.-,  will  produce  the  same  effect,  if  the  weight  of  the  beam  is 
small  compared  with  the  weight  laid  on.  Hence  beams  of  cast  iron 
should  be  made  capable  of  bearing  more  than  6  times  the  greatest 
weight  which  will  be  laid  upon  them. 

In  wrought-iron  beams,  if  fixed  at  both  ends,  the  upper  flange 
should  be  larger  than  the  lower,  in  the  ratio  of  1.32  to  1. 

The  breaking  weights  in  similar  beams  are  to  each  other  as  the 
squares  of  their  like  linear  dimensions;  that  is,  the  breaking  weights 
of  beams  are  computed  by  multiplying  together  the  area  of  their 
section,  their  depth,  and  a  constant,  determined  from  experiments 
on  beams  of  the  particular  form  under  investigation,  and  dividing 
the  product  by  the  distance  between  the  supports. 

Cast  and  wrought  iron  beams,  having  similar  resistances,  have 
weights  nearly  as  2.44  to  1. 

The  range  of  the  comparative  strength  of  girders  of  the  same 
depth,  having  a  top  and  bottom  flange,  and  those  having  bottom 
flange  alone,  is  from  having  but  a  little  area  of  bottom  flange  to  a 
large  proportion  of  it,  from  %  to  \£  greater  strength. 

A  box  beam  or  girder,  constructed  of  plates-  of  wrought  iron, 
compared  to  a  sin-jl  •.•  rib  and  flanged  beami,  of  equal  weights,  has 
a  resistance  as  100  to  93. 

The  resistance  of  beams  or  girders,  where  the  depth  is  greater 
than  their  breadth,  when  supported  at  top,  is  much  increased.  In 
some  cases  the  difference  is  fully  one  third 

When  A  beam  is  of  equal  thickness  throughout  its  depth,  the 


112  STRENGTH    OP    MATERIALS. 

curve  should  be  an  ellipse  to  enable  it  to  support  a  uniform  load  with 
equal  resistance  in  every  part;  and  it'  tin-  beam  is  an  open  one,  tho 
curve  of  equilibrium,  for  a  uniform  load,  sin  mid  be  that  of  a  para- 
bola. Hence,  when  the  middle  portion  is  not  wholly  removed,  the 
curve  should  be  a  compound  of  an  ellipse  and  a  parabola,  approach- 
ing nearer  to  the  latter  as  the  middle  part  is  decreased. 

Girders  of  cast  iron,  up  to  a  span  of  40  feet,  involve  a  less  cost 
than  of  wrought  iron. 

Cast  iron  beams  and  girders  should  not  be  loaded  to  exceed  one- 
fifth  of  their  breaking  weight;  and  when  the  >train  is  attended  with 
concussion  and  vibration,  this  proportion  must  be  incrca>ed. 

Simple  cast  iron  girders  may  be  made  60  feet  in  length,  and  the 
best   form  is  that  of  llodgkinson:  when  subjected  to  a  liv 
the  flange  should  he  as  1  to  6,  and  when  to  a  concussion,  etc.,  as  1  i<  •  I. 

The  forms  of  girders  for  .-dim:  the  limit  of  those  of 

simple  cast  iron  are  various;  the  principal  ones  adopted  an-  those  of 
the  straight  or  arched  cast  iron  girders  in  separate  pieces,  and  bolted 
together— the  Trussed,  the  Bow-string,  and  the  wrought  iron  Box 
and  Tubular. 

A  Straight  or  Arched  Girder  is  formed  of  separate  castings,  and  is 
entirely  dependent  upon  the  bolts  of  connection  for  its  strength. 

A  Trussed  or  Boro-string  Girder  is  made  of  one  or  more  castings 
to  a  single  piece,  and  its  strength  depend-;,  other  than  upon  tin; 
depth  or  area  of  it,  upon  the  proper  adjustment  of  the  tension,  or 
the  initial  strain,  upon  the  wrought  iron  truss. 

A  Box  or  Tubular  Girder  is  made  of  wrought  iron,  and  is  best 

constructed  with  east  iron  tops,  in  order  to  n>>ist  compression:  this 
form  of  girder  is  best  adapted  to  afford  lateral  stiffness. 

Floor  Beams,  Girders,  etc.— The  condition  of  the  stress  borne 
by  a  floor  beam  is  that  of  a  beam  supported  at  both  ends  and 
uniformly  loaded;  but  from  the  irregularity  in  its  loading  and  un- 
loading, and  from  the  necessity  of  its  pOMMBfalg  great  rigidity,  it  is 
impracticable  to  estimate  its  capacity  other  than  as  a  beam  having 
the  weight  borne  upon  the  middle  of  its  length. 

To  Compute  the  Depth  of  a  Floor  Beam.— WHEN  THE 
LENGTH  AND  BKKAOTH  AKE  GIVEN,  AND  THE  DISTANCE  BKTWI.I  N 
THE  CENTRES  OF  THE  BEAM  is  ONE  FOOT. — Rule. — Divide  the 
product  of  the  square  of  the  length  in  feet  and  the  weight  to  be 
borne  in  pounds  per  square  foot  of  floor,  by  the  product  of  I  times 
the  breadth  and  the  value  of  the  material  from  the  Table  (page  208,) 
and  the  square  root  of  the  quotient  will  give  the  depth  of  the  beam 
in  inches. 

EXAMPLE.— A  white  pine  beam  Is  2  Ins.  wide,  and  12  fert  In  length  hp- 
tween  the  suppora ;  what  should  be  the  depth  of  It  to  support  a  weight 
Of  175  Ibs.  per  square  foot? 

IS* \  IT:, 

=105,  and   J  105=10.25  Ins. 

2X4X30 

WHEN  THE  DISTANCE  BETWEEN  THE  CENTRES  OF  THE  BEAM 
is  GREATEB  OR  LESS  THAN  ONE  Yom.—Rule.— Divide  the  product 


STRENGTH    OP    MATERIALS.  113 

of  the  square  of  tin-  depth  for  n  beam,  tc Km  tJie  distance  between  th« 
centra  it  one  foot,  by  the  distance  given  in  inches  by  12,  and  the 
square  root  of' the  quotient  will  give  the  depth  of  the  beam  in  inches. 
EXAMPLE.— Assume  the  beam  In  the  preceding  case  to  be  net  15  Ins. 
from  the  centres  of  Its  adjoining  beams;  what  should  be  Its  depth  ? 

—=131.25,  and  J  131.26- 11.45  Ins. 

Header  and  Trimmer  Beams. — The  conditions  of  the  stress 
borne  or  to  be  provided  for  by  them  are  as  follows: 

IT  •!'!'  r  or  Trimmer  beams  support  M  of  the  weight  of  and  upon 
the  tail  beams  inserted  into  or  attached  to  them. 

Trimmer  Btanw  support,  in  addition  to  that  borne  by  them 
directly  as  a  floor  beam,  each  %  the  weight  on  the  headers. 

The  stress,  therefore,  upon  a  header  is  due  directly  to  its  length, 
or  the  number  of  tail  beams  it  supports;  and  the  stress  upon  the 
trimmer  beams  is  that  of  their  own  stress  as  a  floor  beam,  and  )4  of 
the  weight  upon  the  header  supported  by  them. 

NOTK.— The  distance  between  the  support  of  the  trimmer-beams  and 
the  point  of  connection  with  the  header  does  not  in  anywise  affect  the 
si  ri >•<  upon  the  trimmer-beams;  for  in  just  proportion  as  this  distance, 
is  increased,  and  the  stress  upon  them  consequently  Increased,  by  the 
suspension  of  the  header  from  them  nearer  to  the  middle  of  their 
length,  so  is  the  area  of  their  surface  supported  by  the  header  reduced, 
and,  consequently,  the  load  to  be  borne  by  It 

Girder.— The  condition  of  the  stress  borne  by  a  Girder*  is  that 
of  :i  beam  fixed  or  supported  at  both  ends,  as  the  case  may  be,  sup- 
porting the  weight  borne  by  all  of  the  beams  resting  thereon,  at 
the  points  at  which  they  rest;  and  its  dimensions  must  be  propor- 
tionate to  the  stress  upon  it,  and  the  distance  between  its  points  of 
insertion  or  support. 

ILLUSTRATION. — It  is  required  to  determine  the  dimensions  of  ft 
pitch-pine  glnler.  l.'i  feet  between  its  several  points  of  supports,  to  sup- 
port the  ends  of  two  lengths  of  beams  each  20  feet  In  length,  having  a 
superincumbent  weight,  including  that  of  the  beams,  of  200  IDS.  per 
square  foot. 

The  condition  of  the  stress  upon  such  a  girder  would  be  that  of  a 
number  of  beams,  40  feet  in  length  (20x2),  supported  at  both  ends,  and 
loaded  uniformly  along  their  length,  witn  200  Ibs.  upon  every  super- 
ficial foot  of  their  area. 

Hence  the  amount  of  the  weight  to  be  borne  Is  determined  by  20y2X 
15X200=120,000  Ibs.  the  product  of  twice  the  length  of  r  beam,  the  dis- 
tance between  the  supports  of  the  girder  and  the  weight  borne  per 
square  foot  of  area;  and  the  resistance  to  be  provided  for  is  that  to  be 
borne  by  a  beam,  15  feet  in  length,  fixed  at  both  ends,  and  supporting 
120,000  Ibs.  uniformly  laid  along  its  length,  equal  to  60,000  Ibs.  supported 
at  Its  centre. 

15X00,000 

Consequently,  —         -  =  3000=quotient  of  the  product  of  the  length 

6x50 
and  weight  +•  the  product  of  6  times  the  value  of  the  material :  and 

assuming  the  girder  to  be  12  inches  wide,  then  j =15.8  ins. 

•When  a  girder  has  four  or  more  supports,  its  condition  as  regards  a 
stress  upon  Its  middle  Is  that  of  a  beam  fixed  at  both  ends. 


114 


STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS, 


FORMULJE  TO  COMPUTE  THE  VALUES  AND   THE  DIMENSIONS 
OF  BEAMS,  BARS,  ETC., OF  VARIOUS  SECTIONS.-(TKtDGOLJ).) 

For  a  Square,  Rectangle,  Rectangle  the  diagonal  being  vertical,  and 
Cylinder,  they  are  alike  to  those  already  given,  substituting  in  the 
Rectangles  for  6  d2.  8s. 

For  a  Grooved  or  Double-flanged,  Open,  and  Single-flanged  Beam 
they  are  as  follows : 


Grooved. 


Open. 


1.  Fixed  at  one  End,)  rW 

Weight  suspended  V =V. 

from  the  other,         )  6  d»  (1— q  y*) 

2.  Fixed  at  both  Ends,)  IW 

Weight  suspended  V =V. 

from  the  middle,     j  6  d*  (1— q  y3) 

8.   Supported    at    both)  ,w 

Ends,   Weigh    BUS- I  _=v 

£,,led   from   **\>*^» 

t    both\  mnW 

it   BUS-  |  __^____^^^ 

pended  atany  other 


point  than  the  mid-    bd?m  +  n  (l—q  y») 
'  mnW 


5.   Fixed  at  both  Ends, 
Weight  suspended 


=  V 


•  aw  V 


b  d*  m  +  n  (1— y8) 
mnW 


6  d»  TO  +  n  (1— y») 


f 

-    »*a 

UJl— 


I W                         2.)     For  the  other  condi- 
8.  I  tlons  of  a  Beam,  Bar, 
=V.  4.  [  etc. ,  use  the  same  for- 
5.  J  mula  as  the  above,  mul- 
tiplying the  Value  obtained  above  by  6, 4, 1  and  1.5  respectively,  y  and  q 
depth  of  groove                         whole  breadth  of  beam- 
representing =y,  and 

whole  depth  of  beam 
width  of  web 


whole  breadth  of  beam 


TRANSVERSE  RESISTANCE  FROM  END  PRESSURE  APPLIED 
HORIZONTALLY. 


WROUGHT  IRON.— "7%  feet  in  lencth;  flanges,  6x3^  ins.  X  % 
depth;  area,  5>2  .square  ins. ;  50,000  Ibs.  produced  no  set;  58,240  ibs. 
produced  a  set  01  1%  ius 


WHITE  OAK.— Rectangle  10  feet  in  length,  11X4U  ins. :  33,600  Ibs.  gave 
a  deflection  of  .%  in. ;  50,400  Ibs.  gave  a  deflection  of  A  in.;  67,200  Ibs. 
gave  a  deflection  of  .%  and  with  78,400  it  broke. 


STRENGTH    OP    MATERIALS. 


115 


TRANSVERSE  STRENGTH  OF  CAST-IRON  GIRDERS  AND  BEAMS,  DE- 
DUCED FROM  EXPERIMENTS  IN  ENGLAND  AND  AMERICA. 
Reduced  to  a  Uniform  Measure  of  One  Inrh  in  Drpth,  One  Foot  in  Length. 
Supported  at  both  End*  ;  the  titreu  or  Weight  applied  in  the  Middle. 


FUntce*. 

j 

jj 

a 

3** 

SECTION  OP 

>* 

1 

I 

!*' 

!i 

fl 

0- 

GIRDER  OR 
BEAM. 

1 

Bottom. 

^ 
3 

i 
1 

! 

a 
»5 

1 

Breaking 
Length  of 

I 

if 

Sq.   Ins 

Sq.    Ins. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

Sql. 

Lbs. 

LbB 

Ll.s. 

Eq.  area 

I  of  flange 
at  i,  i.  A- 
bottom, 

1.75X.42 

1.77      M 

.29 

5.125 

L77 

2.82 

80150 

10768 

2100 

H  <°- 

2.02X315  2.02X315 
=1.045       =1.045 

JBL* 

ifl 

2.02 

2.59 

10276 

3952 

1900 

Area 

M    of  see. 
a     of  top 
L&bot. 

""-   .7-' 

6.67X.66 
=  4.4 

.266 

5.128 

6.67 

6.28 

117460 

18852 

3650 

*-lto6,J 

j 

5-.>i:! 

JM 

136 

5. 

1.96 

7280 

8714 

2350 

j1         j 

'  ''i5 

.865 

1.68 

6. 

1.96 

Mi 

1213 

760 

28.9X8.12 

;     ; 

Ml    - 

r 

.    f 

«=  74.66 

(6.1 

*••..  . 

1200 

C. 

! 

.--! 

=    .75 

.5 

4-t 

L6 

1. 

19980 

199SO 

5000 

m 

i 

'  .f'-' 

'  .^ 

.5 

It 

L6 

1. 

7252 

7252 

1800 

| 

u     -: 

4    X2 
-8 



4. 

4. 

14 

83600 

2800 

700 

1 

•      { 

5.1X288 
=  11.88 

12.1X2.07 
KM 

2.08 

303 

11.1 

90.8 

4798800 

m 

1700 

•  Rectaniru-  } 
1  lar  Prism,  > 

H 

1.0D5X.98 

.••-•.  .  l.  : 
LOOS    M 
.771X131 
1.507X.74 
L525X.78 

1.005X.99 

JS®. 

•77!      UJ 
I.  -'7     .71 

1325X.78 

.994 

S 

.006 

.771 
607 

M 

2.012 

2.51 

i.nl 

ii04 
4.07 

2.994 

.005 

JH 
.(XVi 
.771 
.607 

JH 

2.025 
.98 

.'98 
M 

Z« 
2^5 

9440 
UNO 

£-,7."-! 

teas 

80000 

6232 
771.1 
080S 
10TO 
1640 
Ml 

2350 

2450 
•M 

3100 

^_  Square   ' 

S3  Prism, 



.11-' 

1.01 

1,02 

.032 

2635 

2552 

2500 

"•    Stress 



®at  EOda, 
Cylinder!  J 





.122 

1.122 

.122 

.989 

2370 

2396 

2150 

4JSU 

4431 

L443 

.443 
—  ~tn. 

.041 

2269 

2182 

1500 

1  A  ivpresentlng  area  of  secMen.  d  the  depth  It 
the 'breaking  weight  in  pouncU. 


116 


STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS. 


CRUSHING  STRENGTH  OF  VARIOUS   MATERIALS,  DEDUCED 

FROM  EXPERIMENTS  IN  ENGLAND  AND  AMERICA. 

Reduced  to  a  uniform  Measure  of  One  Square  1m  h. 


1 

FIGURES  AND  MATERIAL. 

•ss 

FIGURES  AND  MATERIAL. 

Cm  sli  ing 
Weight. 

Prisms. 

CAST  IRON. 

American,  gun-metal  
"           mean  
English,  LoW(Moor,  No.  I..... 

Clyde,          No's.'.'.'.'" 
Stirling,  mean  of  all 
"        extreme  

•WROUGHT   IRON. 

Lbs. 

ITNfl 
139000 

liL'I.Vl 

B28lo 

106060 
122396 

i.-;  in  vi 

127720 
83600 

Bsaoo 

40000 

wri 

1170., 

2Q600I 

i/woo 
7730 

6663 

mi 

-'.'<• 
lasu 

UK 
fiW 

8811 
mat 

«>!!•: 

88 

nog 

9500 
MM 
BM 

:>--:. 

on 

5950 
7089 

laioo 

6645 

2000 
OK 

4000 
800 

Clay,  fine,  baked  

Lbs. 
175 
400 
»iO 
500 

IP  « 

-,:•!! 
l'!-j 

MM 

mn 

a 

a 

isra 

1.5000 
ON 

.>:,.) 
1717 
KEd 

me 

:,:i!) 
BOM 
HM 

1980Q 

:.;ID 
16800 
9087 

M'til 
28017 

l-.'ll 

L-J702 

0080 
IflM 

ni')6 

1S2-18 
ldl-24 
OBM 
240 
120 
1543 

iaao 

342 

LN,K) 

am 

UI7t>2 
2177 
2228 

"     rolled  and  baked  
Common  brick  masonry  j 

'Craigleith  Limestone,  Eng'h  j 
[Aberdeen  granite,           " 
JArbroath                           " 
CaithneM                          " 
'Limestone 
Portland                           " 
Portland  cement 
mean  " 
Portland  oolite                " 
Fire-brick,  stourbridge...  
Freestone,  Bellville  

"          mean  

English 
'   ( 

VARIOUS   METALS. 

Fine  brass  ^.  

Cast  copper...  

Cast  steel     .. 

Cast  tin  .  .. 
Lead 

WOODS. 

Ash.  ... 

"            Connecticut.^  
Dorchester  
"            Little  Falls.  
Gneiss 

Beech 

Birch. 
Box 
Cedar,  red  ,  '. 
Chestnut 
Elm  '....".""  ."._"" 
Hickory,  white..  "...... 
Locust 

Granite,  Patapsco  
"         Qtiinev 

Marble,  Baltimore,  large  
small  
"        East  Chester*  
Hasting?,  N.  Y  
Italian  
Lee,  Mass  
Montgomery  oo.,Pa... 
"        Stockbridgef  
Symington,  large.™  
"    fine  crvstal  
"    strata  h  or  1  zon  ta  1 
"    strata  vertical  
Mortar,  good 

Mahogany,  Spanish 

Maple  
Oak,  American  white  
"     Canadian  white  
"            "          live  
"     English  j 

Pine,  pitch  
"     white  ... 
44     yellow  ..'.'.. 
Spruce,  white  „  
Sycamore  

"        common  
Normandy  Caen  

Walnut  

Portland  cement,  1  ;  sand,  1  

STONES,    CEMENTS,    ETC. 

Brick,  hard  j 
"       common  j 

Sandstone,  Adelaide.. 

Acquia  Creek!  

stJkbrick8!^::::: 

Sydney  "      

*  Same  as  that  of  the  General  Post  Office,  Washington. 
f  Same  as  that  of  the  City  Hall.  New  York. 


a  Same  as  that  of  the  Smithsonian  Institute. 

r  Same  as  that  of  the  National  Washington  Monument. 


STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS.  117 

CRUSHING  STRENGTH. 

The  crushing  strength  of  any  body  is  in  proportion  to  the  area  of 
its  section,  and  inversely  as  its  height.  In  tapered  columns,  the 
strength  is  determined  by  the  least  diameter. 

When  the  height  of  a  pri*m  or  column  is  not  5  times  its  side  or 
diameter,  the  crushing  strength  is  at  its  maximum. 

Experiments  upon  cast-iron  born  give  a  crushing  stress  of  5,000  Ibs. 
per  square  inch  of  section  as  just  sufficient  to  overcome  the  elas- 
ticity of  the  metal ;  and  when  the  height  exceeds  3  times  the  diam- 
eter, the  iron  yields  by  bending. 

When  it  is  10  times,  it  is  reduced  as  1  to  1.75;  when  it  is  15  times, 
it  is  reduced  as  1  to  2;  when  it  is  20  times,  it  is  reduced  as  1  to  3; 
when  it  is  30  times,  it  is  reduced  as  1  to  4;  and  when  it  is  40  times, 
it  is  reduced  as  1  to  6. 

The  experiment  of  Mr.  ITodpkinson  have  determined  that  an  in- 
crease of  strength  of  about  %  of  the  breaking  weight  is  obtained 
by  enlarging  the  diameter  of  the  column  in  its  middle. 

In  cast  iron  column*  of  the  snme  thickness,  the  strength  Is  inversely 
proportional  to  the  '••  power  of  the  length  nearly.  Thus  in  solid 

d*1* 

columns,  the  ends  being  flat,  the  strength  is  as ,  I  representing  the 

P-i 
length,  and  •/  the  diameter. 

Hollow  columns,  having  a  greater  diameter  at  one  end  than  the 
other,  have  not  any  additional  strength  over  that  of  uniform  cylin- 
drical columns. 

Kxperiment  upon  wrought  iron  give  a  mean  crushing  stress  of 
74. •-.'"•<)  Ibs.  per  square  inch.  Cast  iron  is  decreased  in  length  nearly 
double  what  wrought  iron  is  by  the  same  weight;  but  wrought  iron 
will  sink  to  any  degree  with  little  more  than  26680  Ibs.  per  square 
inch,  while  cast  iron  will  bear  97500  Ibs.  to  produce  the  same  effect 

A  wrought  bar  will  bear  a  compression  of  1-863  of  its  length,  with- 
out its  utility  being  destroyed. 

With  cast  iron,  a  pressure  beyond  26680  Ibs.  per  square  inch  is  of 
little,  if  any,  use  in  practice. 

For  equal  decrements  of  length,  wrought  iron  will  sustain  double 
the  pressure  of  cast  iron. 

a  GRatt  and  the.  hardest  stones  have  a  crushing  strength  from  7  to  9 
times  greater  than  tensile;  hence  an  approximate  value  of  their 
crushing  strength  may  be  obtained  from  their  tensile,  and  contrari- 
wise. 

Various  experiments  show  that  the  power  of  stones,  &c.,  to  resist 
the  effects  of  freezing  is  a  fair  exponent  of  that  to  resist  compres- 
sion. 


118 


DAMS    AND    TUNNELS. 


WROUGHT  IRON  PLATES,  CYLINDRICAL  TTJBES. 


LENGTH. 

1 

M 

B 

1 

1 

Crushing 
Weight.  | 

PLATES. 

feet                                           

Ins. 
2.98 

Ins. 
.497 

Ins 

1  •»« 

Lbs. 

815 

801 

766 

2.3 

3379 

HOLLOW    CYLINDERS. 

feet                                              

External. 
1.495 

Internal. 
1.292 

444 

14661 

II 

249 

2-rT5 

BM 

12)779 

II 

6.366 

6.'l06 

2.547 

35686 

KECTANGULAK  TUBES. 

4.1 
4.1 
425 

4.1 
4.1 
425 

.504 

l.i'-' 
2,895 

10980 
MM 

flap-riveted,    and     two     Internal) 
\diaphragm  plates  J 

8.4 
8.1 
8.1 

4.25 
8.1 

8.1 

ti  >.(» 
2.07 
3.551 

•JWsl 
13^60 
19800 

EXPANSION  OR  DILATATION  OF  SOLIDS.— (FARADAY.) 

Lineal. 
At  212°,  the  length  of  the  bar  at  32°=1. 


Bismuth ..  1.0013908  Gold 1.001495 

Brass 10019062  Granite 1.0007894 


Silver  1.00201 

Slate 1.0011436 


Cast  Iron 1.0011112  Lead 1.0028426  Stock  brick 1.0005502 

Cement 1.001435    Marble 1.001HU1  Mt^el 1.0011899 

Coppor 1.00H:55    Pavement* 

Fire-brick...  1.0004028  Platinum. 


..„  1.0008645  Sandstone 1.001743 


Tin... 
Zinc.. 


iRht  Iron....  M :ni-j.-,75 
„.  1.002042 


DAMS  AND  TUNNELS. 


DAMS   (EARTHWORK.) 

"Width  at  top  In  high  dams  from  7  to  20  ft.  I  Breast  slopes =  3  to  1 

Width  at  top  in  low  dams =  height.  |  Back  slopes =2tol 

Height  above  surface  of  water  not  less  than  3.5  feet. 

PROPORTION  OF  LABORERS  IN  BANK.  FILLERS,  AND  WHEELERS 
IN  DIFFERENT  SOILS,  WHEELERS  BEING  ESTIMATED  FOR  A 
DISTANCE  OF  FIFTY  YARDS. 


£ 

ri 

j 

| 

1 

E 

i 

i 

£ 

£ 

5 

i 

;: 

Inloose  earth,  sand  He 
In  compact  earth  
In  marl  

i 
i 

2 
2 

1 
2 

2 

fn  hard  clav  
In  compact  gravel  
In  rock  

i 
i 

8 

i 

f 

STRENGTH    OF    ICE. 


119 


MASONRY. 

Width  at  bottom  =  .7  height;  at  middle  =  .5  height ;  and  at  top  =  .3 
height. 

TUNNELS.— (FROM  ACTUAL  PRACTICE  IN  BRICKWORK.) 


!| 

0 

. 

1 

PURPOSE. 

II 

8 

! 

is 

If 

fc,0 

33 

K£ 

BO 

Feet. 

Ins. 

Feet.  Ins. 

Feet.  Ins. 

Canal  

Various  

2 

17 

1       3 

Canal  

Clay         

21 

e 

20 

1       6 

Thames  Tunnel.... 

Clay 

22 

8 

:;;       »; 

2       6 

Railway  _  

Chalk  
Various  

•-••: 
27 

6 
6 

27 
27 

1      10}$ 

tthale 

80 

30 

i    loll 

4« 

(  Jn-i'M  siuid  

30 

6 

30 

1       :;  J 

Canal  ....."""'."'.'!!!." 

Fret-stone  _ 
Chalk  and  earth.. 

8 

36 
35       6 

2       8 
1       2 

WESTD-MILLS.— (MOLESWORTH.) 

To  Compute  the  Angles  of  the  Sails. 

18  d* 

23° =  angle  of  the  sail  with  the  plane  of  motion  at  any  part  of 

r* 

the  sail;  r  representing  radius  of  sail  in  feet,  and  d  distance  of  any  part 
of  the  sail  Jrom  the  axis. 

Axis  OP  SHAFT  OF  WIXD-MILL  WITH  HORIZON. 

8°  upon  level  ground. 

Breadth  of  whip  at  axis,  JL  length  of  whip. 

Depth  ^ 

Breadth  of  whip  at  end,  Jl 

Depth  ^ 

Width  of  sail         "  | 

DivMod  bv  the  whip  in  the  proportion  of  5  to  3,  the  narrowest  por- 
tion being  lie  iresl  to  the  wind. 

Width  of  sail  at  axis,  £  length  of  whip;  distance  of  sail  from  axis,  } 
length  of  whip.  » 

Cross-bars  from  16  to  18  Inches  apart. 

STRENGTH  OF  ICE. 

Thickness,  2  Ins.  will  bear  infantry. 

4  "  cavalry  or  light  guns. 

6  "  heavy  field  nuns. 

upon  sledges,  a  weight  not  exceeding  1000 
Ibs.  per  square  foot. 


120  SHRINKAGE    OP    CASTINGS. 

STIFFNESS  OF  BEAMS. 

Stiffness  of  Beams.—  (TRKDGOLD.) 


P  W  c 

=»  d;  -  =  6;  6  representing  breadth,  and  d  depth  In  Inches 
6  (/•' 

I  length  In  feet,  and  W  load  In  Ibs.  upon  the  middle. 
C  =  Pine.  .01;  Ash,  .01;  Beech,  .013;  Elm,  .015;  Oak,  .13;  Teak,  .008. 
When  the  beam  Is  uniformly  loaded,  put  .«i5  W  Instead  of  W. 

Resistance  to  Detrusion.—  When  one  beam  is  let  in,  at  an  in- 

clination to  tlni  depth  of  another,  so  as  to  bear  in  tin-  direction  of 
the  lihrt-s  of  the  l)t-;ini  that  is  cut,  tin-  depth  of  the  cut  atriyht  <i,,://,s 
to  ^t7t;'ftfir,'n  slioultl  not  be  more  than  oiu'-tifth  of  the  length  of  the 
piece,  the  fibres  of  wliich,  by  their  cohesion,  re>i>t  tin-  pressure. 

To  Compute  the  Length  necessary  to  resist  a  given  Hori- 
zontal Thrust,  as  in  the  Case  of  a  Rafter  let  into  a  Tie- 
Beam. 

4T 

—  =  1;  b  representing  the  breadth  of  the  beam  In  Inches,  T  the  hori- 

be 

zontal  thrust  In  Ibs.,  c  the  cohesive  resistance  of  the  material  In  Ibs. 
per  square  Inch,  and  I  the  length  In  inches. 

REVOLVING  DISC. 

To  Compute  the  Power.—  RTTLE.  Multiply  one-half  the  weight 
of  the  disc  by  the  height  due  to  the  velocity  of  its  circumference  in 
feet  per  second. 

EXAMPLE.—  A  grind-stone  S%  feet  In  diameter,  weighing  2000  Ibs.,  Is 
required  to  nwke.'iii-J'i  revolutions  per  minute;  waul  power  must  be 
com  muni  rated  to  It? 

Circum.  of  3%  =10.6  feet,  which  X  362.25  and  -i-  60  =  64  feet  per  second. 
Then  2000  -=-  2  X  64  =  61000  ll>s.  raised  1  foot, 

NOTE.—  If  the  rev<  Iving  disc  Is  not  an  entire  or  solid  wheel,  being  a 
ring  or  annnlus.lt  most  first  be  computed  as  If  «n  entire  disc,  and  then 
the  portion  wanting  must  be  computed  and  deducted. 

Power  Concentrated  in  Moving  Bodies.  —  Simple  power  Is 
force  multiplied  by  its  velocity.  Power  concentrated  in  a  moving 
body  is  the  weight  of  the  body  mvltf/i'ii'l  />>/  tk-  xgitare  of  its  velocity; 
and  the  product  divided  by  the  acceler<dri-r,\ir  the  power  concentrated 
in  a  moving  body  is  equal  to  the  power  expended  in  generating  the 
motion. 

SHRDTKAGE  OF  CASTINGS.  Jn 

Iron,  small  cylinders  ..........................................  =  ^  per  foot. 

"     Pipes  ........................................................  =  £        " 

"     Girders,  beams,  etc  ......................................  =  \  in  15  ins. 

"     Large  cylinders,  the  contraction  of  diameter  at 

top  .......................................................  =  ^  per  foot 

Ditto  at  bottom  ..........................................  =  ^  per  foot. 

"    Ditto  in  length  ..........................................  =  finl6ins. 


VERNIER    SCALE. 


121 


Brass,  thin =  J  in  9  ins. 

Braaa,  thick =  f  in  10  ins. 

Zinc =  -fr  in  a  foot. 

Lead =  ^  in  a  foot. 

Copper =  A  in  afoot. 

BiBmuth =  ft  in  a  foot. 


VERXIER  SCALE. 


The  Vernier  Scale  is  11-lOths,  divided  Into  10  equal  parts;  so  that 
It  divides  a  scale  of  lOths  into  lOOths  when  the  lines  meet  In  the  two 
scales. 


COMPARATIVE  WEIGHT  OF  TIMBER  IN  A  GBEEN  AND 
SEASONED  STATE. 


TIMBER. 


Weight  of  a  Cub.  Ft  1 1 
Green.     B^OO^JI    TIMBER. 


Weight  of  a  Cub.  KU 


Green. 


BMMMM  >i. 


Amer.  Pine- 
Ash 

Beech 


l>-.  Oz. 
fell 

6s.  3 
60. 


Lb*  Or. 

30.il 

60. 
686 


Cedar™ 

Kimlisii  Utik 
Riga  Fir 


71  10 
48.12 


Lh«.0z. 
284 
438 
858 


To  Compute  the  "Weight  of  Cast  Metal  by  the  Weight  of 
the  Pattern.— WHEN  THE  PATTERN  IB  OK  WHITK  PINE.— RULE. 
Mujtiply  tile  weight  of  the  pattern  in  pounds  by  the  following  mul- 
tiplier, and  the  product  will  give  the  weight  of  the  casting: 

Iron,  14;  Brass,  15;  Lead,  22;  Tin,  14;  Zinc,  13.5. 


122  STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS. 


STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS. 

Bar  of  Iron. — The  average  breaking  weight  of  a  Bar  of 
Wrought  Iron,  1  inch  square,  is  25  tons;  its  elasticity  is  destroyed, 
however,  by  about  two-fifths  of  that  weight,  or  10  tons.  It  is  ex- 
tended, within  the  limits  of  its  elasticity,  -000096,  or  one-ten- 
thousandth  part  of  an  inch  for  every  ton  of  strain  per  square  inch 
of  sectional  area.  Hence,  the  greatest  constant  load  should  never 
exceed  one-fifth  of  its  breaking  weight,  or  5  tons  for  every  square 
inch  of  sectional  area. 

The  lateral  strength  of  wrought  iron,  as  compared  with  cast  iron, 
is  as  14  to  9.  Mr.  Barlow  finds  that  wrought  iron  bars,  3  inches 
deep,  1J  inches  thick,  and  33  inches  between  the  supports,  will 
carry  4£  tons. 

Bridges.  —  The  greatest  extraneous  load  on  a  square  foot  is 
about  120  pounds. 

Floors.  —  The  least  load  on  a  square  foot  is  about  160  pounds. 

Roofs.  — Covered  with  slate,  on  a  square  foot,  61 J  pounds. 

Beams. — When  a  beam  is  supported  in  the  middle  and  loaded 
at  each  end,  it  will  bear  the  same  weight  as  when  supported  at 
both  ends  and  loaded  in  the  middle ;  that  is,  each  end  will  bear 
half  the  weight. 

Cast  Iron  Beams  should  not  be  loaded  to  more  than  one-fifth  of 
their  ultimate  strength. 

The  strength  of  similar  beams  varies  inversely  as  their  lengths; 
that  is,  if  a  beam  10  feet  long  will  support  1000  pounds,  a  similar 
beam  20  feet  long  would  support  only  500  pounds. 

A  beam  supported  at  one  end  will  sustain  only  one-fourth  part 
the  weight  which  it  would  if  supported  at  both  ends. 

When  a  beam  is  fixed  at  both  ends,  and  loaded  in  the  middle,  it 
•will  bear  one-half  more  than  it  will  when  loose  at  both  ends. 
When  the  beam  is  loaded  uniformly  throughout  it  will  bear  double. 
When  the  beam  is  fixed  at  both  ends,  and  loaded  uniformly,  it  will 
bear  triple  the  weight. 

In  any  beam  standing  obliquely,  or  in  a  sloping  direction,  its 
strength  or  strain  will  be  equal  to  that  of  a  beam  of  the  same 
breadth,  thickness,  and  material,  but  only  of  the  length  of  the 
horizontal  distance  between  the  points  of  support. 

In  the  construction  of  beams,  it  is  necessary  that  their  form 
should  be  such  that  they  will  be  equally  strong  throughout.  If  a 
beam  be  fixed  at  one  end,  and  loaded  at  the  other,  and  the  breadth 
uniform  throughout,  its  length,  then,  that  the  beam  may  be  equally 
strong  throughout,  its  form  must  be  that  of  a  parabola.  This 
form  is  generally  used  in  the  beams  of  steam-engines. 

When  a  beam  is  regularly  diminished  towards  the  points  that 
are  least  strained,  so  that  all  the  sections  are  similar  figures, 
whether  it  be  supported  at  each  end  and  loaded  in  the  middle,  or 
Supported  in  the  middle  and  loaded  at  each  end,  the  outline  should 
be  a  cubic  parabola. 


STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS.  123 

When  a  beam  is  supported  at  both  ends,  and  is  of  the  same 
breadth  throughout,  then,  if  the  load  be  uniformly  distributed 
throughout  the  length  of  the  beam,  the  line  bounding  the  com- 
pressed side  should  be  a  semi-ellipse. 

The  same  form  should  be  made  use  of  for  the  rails  of  a  wagon- 
way,  where  they  have  to  resist  the  pressure  of  a  load  rolling  over 
them. 

Similar  plates  of  the  same  thickness,  either  supported  at  the 
ends  or  all  round,  will  carry  the  same  weight  either  uniformly 
distributed  or  laid  on  similar  points,  whatever  be  their  extent. 

The  lateral  strength  of  any  beam,  or  bar  of  wood,  stone,  metal, 
etc.,  is  in  proportion  to  its  breadth  multiplied  by  its  depth1.  la 
square  beams  the  lateral  strengths  are  in  proportion  to  the  cubes 
of  the  sides,  and  in  general  of  like-sided  beams  as  the  cubes  of 
the  similar  sides  of  the  section. 

The  lateral  strength  of  any  beam  or  bar,  one  end  being  fixed 
in  the  wall  and  the  other  projecting,  is  inversely  as  the  distance 
of  the  weight  from  the  section  acted  upon  ;  and  the  strain  upon  any 
section  is  directly  as  the  distance  of  the  weight  from  that  section. 

The  absolute  strength  of  ropes  or  bars,  pulled  lengthwise,  is  in 
proportion  to  the  squares  of  their  diameters.  All  cylindrical  or 
prismatic  rods  are  equally  strong  in  every  part,  if  they  are  equally 
thick,  but  if  not  they  will  break  where  the  thickness  is  least. 

The  strength  of  a  tube,  or  hollow  cylinder,  is  to  the  strength  of 
a  solid  one  as  the  difference  between  the  fourth  powers  of  the 
exterior  and  interior  diameters  of  the  tube,  divided  by  the  exte- 
rior diameter,  is  to  the  cube  of  the  diameter  of  a  solid  cylinder, 
—  the  quantity  of  matter  in  each  being  the  same.  Hence,  from 
this  it  will  be  found,  that  a  hollow  cylinder  in  one-half  stronger 
than  a  solid  one  having  the  same  weight  of  material. 

The  strength  of  a  column  to  resist  being  crushed  is  directly  as 
the  square  of  the  diameter,  provided  it  is  not  so  long  as  to  have 
a  chance  of  ber.ding.  This  is  true  in  metals  or  stone,  but  in 
timber  the  proportion  is  rather  greater  than  the  square. 

Models  Proportioned  to  Machines. 

The  relation  of  models  to  machines,  as  to  strength,  deserves  the 
particular  attention  of  the  mechanic.  A  model  may  be  perfectly 
proportioned  in  all  its  parts  as  a  model,  yet  the  machine,  if  con- 
structed in  the  same  proportion,  will  not  be  sufficiently  strong  in 
every  part;  hence,  particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  kind 
of  strain  the  different  parts  are  exposed  to ;  and  from  the  state- 
ments which  follow,  the  proper  dimensions  of  the  structure  may 
be  determined. 

If  the  strain  to  draw  asunder  in  the  model  be  1,  and  if  the 
structure  is  8  times  larger  than  the  model,  then  the  stress  in  the 
structure  will  be  8s  equal  512.  If  the  structure  is  6  times  as  large 
as  the  model,  then  the  stress  on  the  structure  will  be  63  equal  216, 
and  BO  on ;  therefore,  the  structure  will  be  much  less  firm  than 


124 


MANILLA    ROPE. 


the  model;  and  this  the  more,  as  the  structure  is  cube  times 
greater  than  the  model.  If  we  wish  to  determine  the  greatest 
size  we  can  make  a  machine  of  which  we  have  a  model,  we  have, 

The  greatest  weight  which  the  beam  of  the  model  can  bear, 
divided  by  the  weight  which  it  actually  sustains  equal  a  quotient 
which,  when  multiplied  by  the  size  of  the  beam  in  the  model,  will 
give  the  greatest  possible  size  of  the  same  beam  in  the  structure. 

Example.  —  If  a  beam  in  the  model  be  7  inches  long,  and  bear 
a  weight  of  4  Ibs.,  but  is  capable  of  bearing  a  weight  of  26  Ibs., 
what  is  the  greatest  length  which  we  can  make  the  corresponding 
beam  in  the  structure?  Here 

26  -r  4  =  6-5,  therefore,  6-5X7  =  45-5  inches. 

The  strength  to  resist  crushing  increases  from  a  model  to  a 
structure  in  proportion  to  their  size,  but,  as  above,  the  strain  in- 
creases as  the  cubes ;  wherefore,  in  this  case,  also,  the  model  will 
be  stronger  than  the  machine,  and  the  greatest  size  of  the  struc- 
ture will  be  found  by  employing  the  square  root  of  the  quotient 
in  the  last  rule,  instead  of  the  quotient  itself;  thus, 

If  the  greatest  weight  which  the  column  in  a  model  can  bear  is 
8  cwt.,  and  if  it  actually  bears  28  Ibs.,  then,  if  the  column  be  18 
inches  high,  we  have 

i)  =  3-464 ;     wherefore  8-464  X  18  =  62-362 
inches,  the  length  of  the  column  in  the  structure. 
TABLE  OF  MANILLA  EOPE. 


Diam. 

Clrc. 

Wt.  per 

Breaking  load. 

Diam. 

Circ. 

wib«r 

Breaking  load. 

Ins. 

ins. 

Ibs. 

Tons. 

Ibs. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Ibs. 

Tons. 

Ibs. 

•239 

I 

•019 

•25 

660 

1-91 

6 

1-19 

11-4 

25,536 

•318 

1 

•033 

•36 

784 

2-07 

6* 

1-39 

13-0 

29,120 

•477 

u 

•074 

•70 

1,568 

2-23 

7 

1-62 

14-6 

32,704 

•636 

2 

•132 

1-21 

2,733 

2-39 

*i 

1-86 

16-2 

36,288 

•795 

2* 

•206 

1-92 

4,278 

2-55 

8 

2-11 

17-8 

39.872 

•955 

3 

•297 

2-73 

6,115 

2-86 

9 

2-67 

21-0 

47,040 

1-11 

3* 

•404 

3-81 

8,534 

8-18 

10 

3-30 

24-2 

54.208 

1-27 

4 

•528 

5-16 

11,658 

3-50 

11 

3-99 

•J7-4 

61,376 

1-43 

4* 

•668 

6-60 

14,784 

3-82 

12 

4-75 

30-6 

68,544 

1-59 

5 

•825 

8-20 

18,368 

4-14 

13 

6-58 

33-8 

75,712 

1-75 

5J 

•998 

9-80 

21,952 

4-45 

14 

6-47 

37-0 

82.880 

The  strength  of  Manilla  ropes,  like  that  of  bar  iron,  is 
very  variable;  and  so  with  hemp  ones.  The  above  table  supposes 
an  average  quality.  Ropes  of  good  Italian  hemp  are  considerably 
stronger  than  Manilla;  but  their  cost  excludes  them  from  gen- 
eral  use. 

The  Tarring  of  ropes  is  said  to  lessen  their  strength ;  and, 


STRENGTH    OF    WIRE    ROPE. 


125 


when  exposed  to  the  weather,  their  durability  also.  We  believe 
that  the  use  of  it  in  standing  rigging  is  partly  to  diminish  con- 
traction and  expansion  by  alternate  wet  and  dry  weather. 

The  common  rules  for  finding  the  strength  of  rope  by  mul- 
tiplying the  square  of  the  diameter  or  circumference  by  a  given 
coefficient  are  entirely  erroneous. 

Prices  in  Philadelphia,  in  1873  :  Manilla  17  to  18  cents  per 
pound;  Italian  hemp,  25  cents;  American  hemp,  15  cents;  Sisel 
hemp,  16  cents;  jute  (East  Indies),  10  cents. 

TABLE  OF  WIRE  ROPE,  MANUFACTURED  BY  JOHN  A.  ROEB- 
LING'S  SONS,  TRENTON,  N.  J. 

Prices  in  1873,  10  per  cent,  more  than  table. 


Ron  o*  183  Wmn. 

Ror«  or  49  Won. 

1 

i 

a 

i 

a 

i 
i 

1 

f 

a 

jn 

1 

i 

a 

i 

a 

I 

! 

| 

III 

-    _ 

P 

1 

2 
8 
4 
6 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 

10! 

10} 

S1 
? 

4 
:: 

.. 

a 

\ 

\ 
\ 

1  20 
1  05 
91 
78 
65 
63 
41 
34 
28 
25 
24 
23 
22 

74  00 
65  00 
64  00 
43  60 
35  00 
27  20 
20  20 
16  00 
11  40 
8  64 
5  13 
4  27 
3  48 

IP 

10} 

8 
7 
6 
6 

8} 

11 

12 
13 
14 
15 
ir, 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
27J 

1 

i 

•j 
i 

• 

64 
47 
41 
35 
29 
23 
18 
15 
13 
11 
9 
8 
7 

§} 
? 

4 

36  00 
30  00 
25  00 
20  00 
16  00 
12  30 
8  80 
7  60 
5  80 
4  09 
2  83 
2  13 
1  65 
1  38 
1  03 
0  81 
0  56 

103 
10 
9 
8 
7 
G 
5 
6 

j 

Tiller  Rope,  %  in  diam.,  26  ct*. 

Ropes  from  No.  8  to  No.  10%  are  spe- 
cially adapted  for  hoisting-rope. 

28 
29 

3 
2 

Large  Sash  Cor. 
Small      " 

Notes  on  the  Use  of  Wire  Rope,  by  Mr.  Roebling. 

Two  kinds   of  wire  rope  are  manufactured;  the  larger  sizes, 
as  also  the  most  pliable,  are  composed  of  133  wires,  and  are  gen- 


126  STRENGTH    OF    WIRE    ROPE. 

erally  used  for  hoisting  or  running  rope.  Those  of  49  wires  are 
stiller,  and  are  better  adapted  for  standing  rope,  guys,  and  rigging. 

For  safe  working  load,  allow  £  to  }  of  ultimate  strength,  accord- 
ing to  speed  and  vibration  When  substituting  Wire  Rope  for 
hemp  rope,  it  is  good  economy  to  allow  for  the  former  the  same 
rate  per  foot  run  which  experience  has  approved  of  for  the  latter. 

Wire  Rope  is  as  pliable  ns  new  hemp  rope  of  the  same  strength  ; 
the  former  will  therefore  run  over  the  same  sized  sheaves  and  pul- 
leys which  are  used  for  the  latter.  But  the  greater  the  diameter 
of  the  sheaves,  pulleys,  or  drums,  the  longer  Wire  Rope  will  last. 
In  the  construction  of  machinery  for  Wire  Rope  it  will  be  found 
good  economy  to  make  the  drums  and  sheaves  as  large  as  possible. 
The  size  of  drum  is  as  follows:  The  same  figure  which  expresses 
the  circumference  in  inches  in  the  second  column  of  the  table  is 
also  the  minimum  diameter  of  drum  in  feet;  doubling  that  figure 
will  give  the  maximum.  The  diameter  of  drum  should  be  no  less 
than  the  minimum,  nor  is  it  necessary  to  exceed  the  maximum. 
As  an  example,  take  a  No.  4  rope,  circumference  5  inches;  there- 
fore the  minimum  diameter  of  drum  is  5  feet,  and  the  maximum. 
10  feet.  Or  a  No.  10J  rope,  circumference  2  inches ;  therefore 
minimum  diameter  is  2  feet;  and  maximum  4  feet.  A  smaller 
diameter  of  drum  may  answer,  but  the  short  bending  will  result 
in  a  much  more  rapid  wear.  In  most  cases  the  Rope  will  wear 
twice  as  long  on  a  maximum  diameter  as  on  a  minimum. 

Experience  has  also  demonstrated  that  the  wear  increases  with 
the  speed.  It  is  better  to  increase  the  load  than  the  speed. 

Wire  Rope  is  manufactured  either  with  a  wire  or  hemp  centre. 
The  latter  is  more  pliable  than  the  former,  and  will  wear  better 
where  there  is  short  bending. 

Wire  Hope  must  not  be  coiled  or  uncoiled  like  hemp  rope.  When 
mounted  on  a  reel  the  latter  should  be  turned  on  a  spindle  to  pay  off 
the  rope.  When  forwarded  in  a  coil  without  reel,  roll  il  over  the 
ground  like  a  wheel,  and  run  off  the  rope  in  that  way.  All  un- 
twisting must  be  avoided. 

To  preserve  Wire  Rope  apply  raw  linseed  oil  with  a  piece  of 
sheepskin,  wool  inside  ;  or  mix  the  oil  with  equal  parts  of  Spanish 
brown  and  lampblack. 

To  preserve  Wire  Rope  under  water  or  under  ground,  take 
mineral  or  vegetable  tar,  add  1  bushel  of  fresh  slacked  lime  to  1 
barrel  of  tar,  (which  will  neutralize  the  acid,)  and  boil  it  well, 
then  saturate  the  rope  with  the  boiling  tar. 

The  grooves  of  cast-iron  pulleys  and  sheaves  should  be  filled 
with  well-seasoned  blocks  of  hard  wood,  set  on  end,  to  be  renewed 
when  worn  out.  This  end  wood  will  save  the  rope  and  increase 
adhesion.  The  small  pulleys  or  rollers  which  support  the  ropes 
on  inclined  planes  should  be  constructed  on  the  same  plan.  When 
large  sheaves  run  with  a  very  great,  velocity,  the  grooves  muM  be 
lined  either  with  leather  set  on  eud,  with  cork,  or  with  India  rub- 
ber. This  is  done  in  the  case  of  all  sheaves  used  in  the  transmit- 
tion  of  power  between  distant  points  by  means  of  ropes,  which 


STRENGTH    OF    IRON    CHAINS. 


127 


frequently  run  at  the  rate  of  4000  feet  per  minute.     Rope  }  inch 
diameter  will  transmit  100  horse  power  to  a  great  distance. 

WEIGHT  AND  STRENGTH  OP  IRON  CHAINS. 

The  links  of  ordinary  iron  chains  are  usually  made  aa 
short  as  is  consistent  with  easy  play,  in  order  that  they  nay  not 
become  bent  when  wound  around  drums,  sheaves,  etc. ;  and  that 
they  may  be  more  easily  handled  in  slinging  large  blocks  of 
Btonc,  etc. 

When  so  made,  their  weight  per  foot  run  is  quite  approximately 
8}  times  that  of  a  single  bar  of  the  round  iron  of  which  they  are 
composed.  Since  each  link  consists  of  two  thicknesses  of  bar,  it 
might  be  supposed  that  a  chain  would  possess  about  double  the 
strength  of  a  single  bar;  but  the  strength  of  the  bar  becomes 
reduced  about  -fs,  by  being  formed  into  links;  so  that  the  chain 
really  has  but  about  ^  of  the  strength  of  two  bars.  As  a  thick 
bar  of  iron  will  not  sustain  as  heavy  a  load  in  proportion  as  a 
thinner  one,  so  of  course  stout  chains  are  proportionably  weaker 
than  slighter  ones.  In  the  following  table,  20  tons  per  tyuare  inch 
is  assumed  as  the  average  breaking  strain  of  a  single  straight  bar 
of  ordinary  rolled  iron,  1  inch  in  diameter  or  1  inch  square;  19 
tons,  from  1  to  2  inches  ;  and  18  tons,  from  2  to  8  inches.  Deduct- 
ing A  from  each  of  these,  we  have  as  the  breaking  strain  of  the 
two  bars  composing  each  link,  as  follows:  14  ions  per  tquare  inch, 
up  to  1  inch  diameter;  13-3  tons,  from  1  to  2  inches ;  and  12-ti 
tons,  from  2  to  8  inches  diameter ;  and  upon  these  assumptions 
the  table  is  based.4 

TABLE  OF  STRENGTH  OF  CHAINS.     (Original.) 
Chains  of  superior  iron  will  require  \  to  J  more  to  break  them. 


Diam.  of  rod 
or  which 
thelioki 

Weight 
of  chain 
per  ft.  ran. 

Breaking  itrain 
or  UK,  chain. 

Dlam.  of  rod 
oT  which 
the  llnkt 

oT'c&n 
perft-ruu. 

Breaking  itraia 
ofUwduun. 

Int. 

P<1«. 

•325 

U31 

•773 

Ina, 
1 

9^6 

PH. 

TOM. 

•J'J-00 

1 

•679 

3,069 

1-37 

1 

11-7 

wjat 

26-44 

JL 

•904 

4,794 

2-14 

14-5 

78,114 

3264 

a. 

1-30 

6,922 

8-09 

17-6 

88,801 

39-42 

f<r 

1-78 

9,408 

4-20 

20-8 

I.:,.  1M' 

47-00 

i 

2-81 

12,820 

6-60 

24-4 

123,614 

66-14 

A 

2-93 

15,590 

<',•'."', 

28-4 

143,293 

63-97 

1 

362 

19,219 

8-58 

82-6 

164,505 

78-44 

ii 

4-38 

28,i74 

10-39 

2 

37-0 

187,162 

83-66 

• 

6-21 

27,687 

12-36 

2* 

46-9 

224,448 

100-2 

H 

6-11 

82,301 

14-42 

2* 

57-9 

277,088 

123-7 

i 

7-10 

37,632 

16-80 

2* 

70-0 

335,328 

149-7 

H 

8-14 

43,277 

l'J-32 

8 

83-3 

398,944 

178-1 

Price  in  1873  of  chain.,  about  10  centa  per  pound  for  % ;  7»4  for  %  j  6  for 


128         WEIGHT    OF    RAILROAD    SPIKES 


•WEIGHT  OF  RAILROAD  SPIKES.* 

The  hook  -  headed  spikes  t,  commonly  used  for  confining 
rails  to  the  cross-ties,  vary  withiu  the  limits  of  the  following 
Fie.43.  table ;  the  lightest  ones  for  light  rails  on  short  local 
branches  ;  and  the  heaviest  ones  for  heavy  rails  on  first- 
class  roads.  The  table  is  from  the  Phoenix  Iron  Company 
of  Philadelphia.  The  spikes  are  sold  in  kegs  usually  of  K>0 
pounds.  For  the  weight  of  spikes  of  larger  dimensions,  we 
may  near  enough  take  that  of  a  square  bar  of  the  same 
length.  What  is  saved  at  the  point,  suffices  for  the  addi- 
tion at  the  head. 


Size  in  ins. 

No.  per  keg 
of  150  Ibs. 

No. 
per  ft). 

Size  in  ins. 

Sfitt? 

No. 
perlb. 

Length.    Side. 

Jlxt 

526 

400 

3-5 
2-66 

Length.    Side. 

850 
289 

2'33 
1-93 

6x1 

705 

4-7 

51  x   s 

218 

1-46 

6  xA 

488 

3-25 

6Xl 

810 

2-07 

6    X  t 

390 

2-6 

262 

1-76 

295 

1-97 

196 

1-30 

6    X  * 

257 

1-71 

A  size  in  very  common  use  is  5£  X  •&•  which  weighs  about 
J  pound  per  spike.  A  mile  of  single-track  road,  with  2,112  cross- 
ties,  2J  feet  apart  from  centre  to  centre,  and  with  rails  of  the 
ordinary  length  of  24  feet,  or  10  ties  to  a  rail,  thus  having  440 
rail-joints  per  mile,  with  4  spikes  to  each  tie,  except  at  the  rail- 
joints,  at  each  of  which  there  will  be  4  Bpikes,f  will  require,  at 
a  neat  calculation,  9,328  spikes. 

But  an  allowance  must  be  made  for  rail  guards  at  road-cross- 
ings, which  we  may  assume  to  be  24  feet  wide,  or  the  length  of  a 
rail.  A  guard  will  usually  consist  of  4  extra  rails  for  protecting 
the  track  rails,  and  spiked  to  the  11  ties  by  which  said  track  rails 
are  sustained.  Consequently,  such  a  crossing  requires  11  X^  = 
88  spikes.  For  turnouts,  sidings,  loss,  etc.,  we  may  roughly 
average  584 J  spikes  more  per  mile;  thus  making  in  all  (if  we 
assume  one  road-crossing  per  mile)  9328  +  88  +  584—10,000 
spikes  per  mile,  or  5000  pounds,  or  33J  kegs  of  160  pounds. 

Adhesion  of  Spikes.  —  Professor  W.  R.  Johnson  found  that 

*  The  price  of  spikes,  and  of  cut  nails,  in  Philadelphia,  in  1873,  about  5  centa 
per  pound.  Rivets  16  cents. 

f  This  supposes  the  joint  and  chair  to  rest  upon  a  tie;  but  when  long  chairs 
are  used,  with  a  view  of  placing  the  mil-joint  between  two  ties  laid  near  each 
other,  there  will  be  8  spikes  to  a  joint;  or  1,760  per  mile  more  than  above; 
equal  to  880  pounds;  making  in  all,  per  mile  single  track,  say  12,000  spiki><,  or 
6,000  pounds,  or  40  kegs. 

|  Tola  allows  that  turnouts  and  sidings  amount  to  about  1  mile  of  extra  track 
on  15  miles  of  road. 


WEIGHT    OF    NAILS. 


129 


a  plain  spike  -375,  or  |  inch  square,  driven  3f  inches  into  seasoned 
Jersey  yellow  pine,  or  unseasoned  chestnut,  required  about  2000 
pounds  force  to  extract  it;  from  seasoned  white  oak,  about  4000; 
and  from  well-seasoned  locust,  about  6000  pounds.  Bevan  found 
that  a  6-penny  nail,  driven  one  inch,  required  the  following  forces 
to  extract  it:  Seasoned  beech,  667  pounds;  oak,  607;  elm,  327; 
pine,  187. 

Recent  careful  experiments  in  Hanover,  Germany,  by 
Engineer  Funk,  give  from  2465  to  8940  pounds  (mean  of  many 
experiments,  about  3000  pounds)  as  the  force  necessary  to  extract 
a  plain  £  inch  square  iron  spike,  6  inches  long,  wedge-pointed  for 
one  inch  (twice  the  thickness  of  the  spike),  and  driven  -U 
inches  into  white  or  yellow  pine.  When  driven  5  inches, 
the  force  required  was  about  ^  part  greater.  Similar 
spikes,  ft  inch  square,  7  inches  long,  driven  6  inches 
deep,  required  from  3700  to  6746  pounds  to  extract  them 
from  pine;  the  mean  of  the  results  being  4878  pounds. 
In  all  cases  about  twice  at  much  force  vat  required  to  extract 
them  from  oak.  The  spikes  were  all  driven  acrost  the 
grain  of  the  wood.  Experience  shows  that  when  driven 
wi'/A  the  grain,  spikes  or  nails  do  not  hold  with  much  more  than 
half  as  much  force. 

Jagged  spfkes,  or  twisted  ones  (like  an  auger),  or  those  which 
were  either  swelled  or  diminished  near  the  middle  of  their  length, 
all  proved  inferior  to  plain  square  ones.  When  the  length  of  the 
wedge  point  was  increased  to  4  times  the  thickness  of  the  spike, 
the  resistance  to  drawing  out  was  a  trifle  less. 

When  the  length  of  the  spike  is  fixed,  there  is  probably  no 
better  shape  than  the  plain  square  cross-section,  with  a  wedge 
point  twice  as  long  as  the  width  of  the  spike,  as  per  Fig.  44. 

Boards  of  oak  or  pine,  nailed  together  by  from  4  to  16 
tenpenny  common  cut  nails,  and  then  pulled  apart  in  a  direction 
lengthwise  of  the  boards,  and  across  the  nails,  tending  to  break 
the  latter  in  two  by  a  shearing  action,  averaged  about  800  to  400 
pounds  per  nail  to  separate  them ;  as  the  result  of  many  trials. 


Fig.  44, 


I 


WEIGHT  OF  NAILS.* 


Name. 

LenRth. 
Inches. 

No.  per  ft. 

1           Nam* 

SC: 

No.  per  ft. 

3  penny  

1 

667 

8  penny  

21 

101 

4      "      ... 
5      "      

l\ 

353 
232 

10      «     .... 
12      «     .... 

8 

68 
54 

6      «      

2 

175 

20      «     .... 

3J 

34 

7      '«      

2* 

141 

| 

*  Price  in  Philadelphia,  1873,  about  5  cents  per  pound.    Boofing  nails  of 
tinned  iron,  12  cento.    Copper  nails,  50  cento. 


130      STRENGTH    OF    CAST    IRON    BEAMS. 

•  The  sizes  and  weights  vary  considerably  with  different  makers. 
The  above  are  machine-made,  or  CUT  NAILS,  in  distinction  to  the 
WROUGHT  NAILS  made  by  the  blacksmith. 


A  TABLE 

Showing  the  Weight  or  Pressure  a  beam  of  Cast  Iron,  1  inch  in  breadth, 
will  sustain,  without  destroying  its  elastic  force,  when  it  it  supported 
at  each  end,  and  loaded  in  the  middle  of  its  length,  and  also  the  de- 
flection in  the  middle  which  that  weight  will  produce.  By  Mr.  Hodg- 
kinson,  Manchester. 


length. 

6  Feet. 

7  Feet. 

8  Feet. 

•  Feet. 

10  Feet. 

X 

Weight  I   Dcfl. 
In  Ibi.   1  ID  In. 

Weight 
inltu. 

Den. 
la  ID. 

Weight 
lolb*. 

DeH. 
into. 

w? 

Dett. 
la  In. 

» 

Drfl. 
In  ID. 

3 

1278 

•L't 

1089 

•33 

954 

42t> 

855 

•54 

766 

•66 

3} 

1739 

•205 

1  !>•_' 

•28 

1298 

•305 

1164 

•46 

1041 

•67 

4 

2272 

•18 

1936 

•L'l.-. 

1700 

•32 

1520 

•405 

1360 

•5 

*} 

2875 

•16 

2450 

•217 

2146 

•284 

19ii4 

•36 

1721 

-441 

6 

8560 

•144 

3050 

•196 

2050 

•256 

2375 

•32 

2125 

•4 

6 

5112 

•12 

4356 

•163 

3816 

•213 

8420 

•27 

8060 

•33 

7 

6958 

•103 

6929 

•14 

6194 

•183 

4655 

•23 

4165 

•29 

8 

9088 

•09 

7744 

•123 

6784 

•16 

6080 

•203 

6440 

•25 

9 

9801 

•109 

8586 

•142 

7695 

•18 

6885 

22 

10 

12100 

•098 

10600 

•128 

9500 

•162 

8600 

•2 

11 

12826 

•117 

11496 

•15 

10285 

•182 

12 

15264 

•107 

13680 

•136 

12240 

•17 

13 

16100 

•125 

14400 

•154 

14 

18600 

•115 

16700 

143 

11  Feet. 

UFeet. 

16  Feet. 

18  Feet. 

»  Feet. 

6 

2548 

•48 

2184 

•65 

1912 

•85 

1699 

1-08 

1530  1-34 

7 

3471 

•41 

2975 

•68 

2603 

•73 

2314 

•93 

2082 

1  14 

8 

4532 

•36 

3884 

•49 

3396 

•64 

8020 

•81 

2720 

1-00 

9 

5733 

•32 

4914 

•44 

4302 

•57 

3825 

•72 

3438 

•89 

10 

7083 

•28 

6071 

•39 

6312 

•51 

4722 

•64 

4250 

•8 

11 

8570 

•26 

7346 

•36 

6428 

17 

6714 

•69 

6142 

•73 

12 

10192 

•24 

8736 

•33 

7648 

•43 

6796 

•54 

6120 

•67 

13 

11971 

•22 

10260 

•31 

B978 

•39 

7980 

•49 

71^'J 

•61 

14 

13883 

•21 

11900 

•28 

10412 

•36 

9^65 

•46 

8330 

•67 

15 

15937 

•19 

13660 

•26 

11963 

•34 

10624 

•43 

9562 

•53 

16 

18128 

•18 

15536 

•24 

13584 

•32 

12080 

•40 

LOB80 

•6 

17 

20500 

•17 

17500 

•23 

15353 

•30 

18647 

•38 

12282 

•47 

18 

22932 

•16 

19656 

•21 

17208 

•28 

15700 

•36 

13752 

•44 

NOTE. — This  table  shows  the  greatest  weight  that  ever  ought  to 
be  laid  upon  a  beam  for  permanent  load ;  and  if  there  be  any  lia- 


RESISTANCE    OF    BODIES.  131 

bility  to  jerks,  etc.,  ample  allowance  must  be  made;  also,  the 
weight  of  the  beam  itself  must  be  included.  [See  Tablet  of  Catt 
/ron.] 

To   find   the    Weight   of   a   Cast    Iron    Beam   of    given 
Dimensions. 

RULE.  —  Multiply  the  sectional  area  in  inches  by  the  length  in 
feet,  and  by  3-2,  the  product  equal  the  weight  in  pounds. 

Example.— Required  the  weight  of  a  uniform  rectangular  beam 
of  cast  iron,  16  feet  in  length,  11  inches  in  breadth,  and  1}  inch 
in  thickness. 

11  X  1-6  X  16  X  3'2  =  844-8  pounds. 

Resistance  of  Bodies  to  Flexure  by  Vertical  Pressure. 

When  a  piece  of  timber  is  employed  as  a  column  or  support,  its 
tendency  to  yielding  by  compression  is  different  according  to  the 
proportion  between  its  length  and  area  of  its  cross  section;  and 
supposing  the  form  that  of  a  cylinder  whose  length  is  less  than 
seven  or  eight  times  its  diameter,  it  is  impossible  to  bend  it  by 
any  force  applied  longitudinally,  as  it  will  be  destroyed  by  split- 
ting before  that  bending  can  take  place ;  but  when  the  length  ex- 
ceeds this,  the  column  will  bend  under  a  certain  load,  and  be 
ultimately  destroyed  by  a  similar  kind  of  action  to  that  which  has 
place  in  the  transverse  strain.  Columns  of  cast  iron  and  of  other 
bodies  are  also  similarly  circumstanced. 

When  the  length  of  a  cast  iron  column  with  flat  ends  equals  about 
thirty  times  its  diameter,  fracture  will  be  produced  wholly  by 
bending  of  the  material.  When  of  less  length,  fracture  takes 
plac«  partly  by  crushing  and  partly  by  bending.  But,  when  the 
column  is  enlarged  in  the  middle  of  its  length  from  one  and  a 
half  to  twice  its  diameter  at  the  ends,  by  being  cast  hollow,  the 
strength  is  greater  by  one-seventh  than  in  a  solid  column  con- 
taining the  same  quantity  of  material. 

To  determine  the  Dimensions  of  a  Support  or  Column  to 
bear,  without  sensible  Curvature,  a  given  Pressure  in 
the  Direction  of  its  Axis. 

RULE.— Multiply  the  pressure  to  be  supported  in  pounds  by  the 
square  of  the  column's  length  in  feet,  and  divide  the  product  by 
twenty  times  the  tabular  value  of  £;  and  the  quotient  will  be 
equal  to  the  breadth  multiplied  by  the  cube  of  the  least  thickness, 
both  being  expressed  in  inches. 

NOTE  1.— When  the  pillar  or  mpport  is  a  square,  its  side  will  be 
the  fourth  root  of  the  quotient. 

NOTE  2. —  If  the  pillar  or  column  be  a  cylinder,  multiply  the 
tabular  value  of  £  by  12,  and  the  fourth  root  of  the  quotient  equal 
the  diameter. 


132  ELASTICITY    OF    TORSION. 

Example  \.  —  What  should  be  the  least  dimensions  of  an  oak 
support,  to  bear  a  weight  of  2240  pounds,  without  sensible  flexure, 
its  breadth  being  3  inches,  and  its  length  5  feet? 

Tabular  value  of  E  =  105, 


Example  2.  —  Required  the  side  of  a  square  piece  of  Riga  fir,  9 
feet  in  length,  to  bear  a  permanent  weight  of  6000  pounds. 

Tabular  value  of  E  =  90, 
and  °!  =  V263  =  4  inches  nearly. 


Elasticity    of   Torsion,    or    Resistance    of    Bodies  to 
Twisting. 

The  angle  of  flexure  by  torsion  is  as  the  length  and  extensi- 
bility of  the  body  directly  and  inversely  as  the  diameter;  hence 
the  length  of  a  bar  or  shaft  being  given,  the  power,  and  the  lever- 
age the  power  acts  with,  being  known,  and  also  the  number  of 
degrees  of  torsion  that  will  not  affect  the  action  of  the  machine, 
to  determine  the  diameter  in  cast  iron  with  a  given  angle  of 
flexure. 

RULE. — Multiply  the  power  in  pounds  by  the  length  of  the  shaft 
in  feet,  and  by  the  leverage  in  feet;  divide  the  product  by  fifty- 
five  times  the  number  of  degrees  in  the  angle  of  torsion;  and  the 
fourth  root  of  the  quotient  equal  the  shaft's  diameter  in  inches. 

Example. — Required  the  diameters  for  a  series  of  shafts  35  feet 
in  length,  and  to  transmit  a  power  equal  to  1245  pounds,  acting 
at  the  circumference  of  a  wheel  2J  feet  radius,  so  that  the  twist 
of  the  shafts  on  the  application  of  the  power  may  not  exceed  one 
degree. 

45  66  V  *  2 ^  =  V1981  =  6'67  inches  in  diameter- 


To  determine  the  Side  of  a  Square  Shaft  to  resist  Tor- 
sion -with  a  given  Flexure. 

RULE.  —  Multiply  the  power  in  pounds  by  the  leverage  it  acts 
with  in  feet,  and  also  by  the  length  of  the  shaft  in  feet ;  divide 
this  product  by  92-5  times  the  angle  of  flexure  in  degrees,  and 
the  square  root  of  the  quotient  equals  the  area  of  the  shaft  in 
inches. 

Example.  —  Suppose  the  length  of  a  shaft  to  be  12  feet,  and  to 
be  driven  by  a  power  equal  to  700  pounds,  acting  at  1  foot  from 


STRENGTH    OF    BEAMS. 


133 


the  centre  of  the  shaft—required  the  area  of  cross  section,  so  that 
it  may  not  exceed  1  degree  of  flexure. 


700X1X12 
92-6X1 


=  V 90-8  =  9-53  inches. 


Relative   Strength  of  Bodies  to  resist   Torsion,    Lead 
being  1. 


Tin 1-4 

Copper 4-8 

Yellow  Brass 4-6 


Gun  Metal 6-0 

Cast  Iron 9-0 

Swedish  Iron....  9-6 


English  Iron....  10-1 
Blistered  Steel..  16-6 
Shear  Steel 17-0 


STRENGTH  OF  BEAMS. 

[From  Lowndes'  Engineer's  Hand-book,— Liverpool,  I860.] 
Solid,  Rectangular,  and  Round  — To  find  their  Strength. 

Square  and  rectangular. 
(Depth  ins.)1  X  Thickness  ins. 
Length,  ft. 


tons. 


X  Tabular  No.  =  Breaking  weight, 
Round. 


Hollow. 


weight,  tons. 


Thickness  not  exceeding  j 

I  inch  for  iron. 
3  ins.  for  wood. 

2  ins.  for  iron. 
6  ins.  for  wood. 

3  ins.  for  iron. 
12  ins.  for  wood. 

Square  and  Rectangular. 


Cast  and  Wrought  Iron 
Teak  and  greenheart 
Pitch  pine,  and  Cana- 
dian oak  

•1 

•36 

•25 

•85 
•32 

•22 

•7 
•26 

•18 

Fir,  red  pine,  and  Eng- 
lish  oak  

•18 

•16 

•13 

134  STRENGTH    OF    BEAMS. 

Hound. 


Cast  and  Wrought  Iron 

•8 

•68 

•56 

Teak  and  greenheart... 

•28 

•25 

•2 

Fir  and  English  oak... 

•14 

•125 

•1 

To  find  the  Breaking  Weight  in  Ibs.  use  tJus  Tabular  No.  below. 


Thickness  not  exceeding  j 

1  inch  for  iron. 
3  ins.  for  wood. 

2  ins.  for  iron. 
G  iiis.  for  wood. 

3  ins.  for  iron. 
12  ins.  for  wood. 

Square  and  Rectangular. 


Iron  

1    2240 

1900 

1570 

Teak  

800 

710 

570 

Fir  and  oak  

1     400 

855 

285 

Round. 


1    1800 

1570 

Teak  

....     640 

670 

460 

....|     320 

285 

230 

fwith     1     ton. 
::  it :: 


Though  wrought  and  cast  iron  are  represented  in  these  rules 
as  of  equal  strength,  it  should  be  observed  that  while  a  cast  iron 
bar  1  inch  X  1  i«ch  X  1  foot  0  inch  long,  of  average  quality,  will 
break  with  one  ton,  a  similar  bar  of  wrought  iron  only  loses  its 
elasticity,  and  deflects  J6  th  of  an  inch,  yet  as  it  can  only  carry 
a  further  weight  by  destroying  its  shape  and  increasing  the  de- 
flection, it  is  best  to  calculate  on  the  above  basis: 

A  wrought  iron  bar 

1  in.  XI  in-Xlft-Oin.  ]ongjde 

The  above  rule  gives  the  weight  that  will  break  the  beam  if  put 
on  the  middle.  If  the  weight  is  laid  equally  all  over,  it  would  re- 
quire double  the  weight  to  break  it. 

A  beam  should  not  be  loaded  with  more  than  £  of  the  breaking 
weight  in  any  case,  and  as  a  general  rule  not  with  more  than  1  • 
for  purposes  of  machinery,  not  with  more  than  1  to  A,  depending 
on  circumstances. 

To  find  the  proper  size  for  any  given  purpose. 

Rectangular. 
Weight  X  Length  ft. 

Tabular  NoT X  3  or  4  or  6,  etc.,  according  to  circumstances 
=  B  D2  ins. 


SOLID    COLUMNS, 
Round. 


135 


VWeight  X  I**!* 

Tabular  No. 

stances  =  Diam.  ins. 


of      of  accordiD8  to  circum. 


SOLID    COLUMNS. 


Fail  by  crushing  with  length  under. 


6  diameters. 


Principally  by  crushing  from 5  to  15 

Partly  by  crushing,  partly  by  bending,  from.  15  to  26         " 
Altogether  by  bending  above ~  25         " 

Cast  iron  of  average  quality  is  crushed  with 49  tons  per  sq.  in. 

Wrought  iron  of  average  quality  is  crushed  with  10         "          " 

Wrought  iron  is  permanently  injured  with 12         '•          " 

Oak  wrought  is  crushed  with 4         '«          " 

Deal  wrought  is  crushed  with 2         "          " 

The  comparative  strength  of  different  columns,  of  different 
lengths,  will  be  seen  very  clearly  from  the  following  table  derived 
from  experiments  by  Mr.  llodgkinson : 


Wrought  Iron  Bars. 

Proportion  of  length 
to  Thickness. 

GIT 

a  way  with 

Square. 

Length. 

ins. 

ft.    ins. 

1X1 

H 

7} 

tol 

21-7  tons  per  sq 

inch. 

I     8 

15 

to  1 

15-4 

•« 

•• 

it 

2    6 

80 

to  1 

11-8 

M 

u 

it 

5    0 

60 

tol 

7-5 

u 

u 

<« 

7    6 

90 

to  1 

4-3 

II 

ii 

IXi 

5    0 

120 

tol 

2-6 

II 

ii 

7    6 

180 

to  1 

1- 

" 

" 

To  find  the  Strength  of  any  "Wrought  Iron  Column  with 
Square  Ends. 

Area  of  column  sq.  inches  x  tons  per  inch  corresponding  to  pro- 
portion of  length,  as  per  table  above  =  Breaking  weight,  tons. 

If  the  ends  are  rounded,  divide  the  final  result  by  3  to  find  the 
breaking  weight. 

In  columns  of  oblong  section,  the  narrowest  side  must  always 
be  taken  in  calculating  the  proportion  of  height  to  width. 


136 


STRENGTH    OF    COLUMNS, 


To  find  the  Strength  of  Round  Columns  exceeding  25 
Diameters  in  Length.     (Mr.  Hodgkinson's  Rule.) 


(Diameter,    ins.)" 
(Length,  ft.)1-* 


' 


Breaking  weight,  tons. 


Square  Ends. 

Rounded  or  Movable 
Ends. 

77 

26 

44 

15 

4-5 

1.7 

Eed  deal      

8-3 

1-2 

A  column  should  not  be  loaded  with  more  than  £  of  the  breaking 
weight  in  any  case,  and  as  a  general  rule,  not  with  more  than  \ ; 
for  purposes  of  machinery,  not  with  more  than  £  to  -j^,  according 
to  circumstances. 


TABLES  OF  POWERS  FOR  THE  DIAMETERS  AND  LENGTHS  OF 
COLUMNS. 


Diameter. 

3-6  Power. 

Diameter. 

3-6  Power. 

Length. 

1-7  Power. 

1  in. 

1- 

7  in. 

1102-04 

1 

1- 

2-23 

1261- 

2 

3-25  • 

4-3 

1413-3 

8 

6-47 

7-5 

1590-3 

4 

10-566 

2 

12-1 

8 

1782-9 

5 

16-426 

t 

18-5 
27- 
38-16 

I 

1991-7 
2217-7 
2461-7 

6 
7 

8 

21  -031 
27-332 
34-297 

3 

62-2 

9 

2724-4 

9 

41-9 

69-63 

* 

3006-85 

10 

60-119 

90-9 

I 

3809-8 

11 

68-934 

. 

116-55 

! 

3634-3 

12 

68-329 

4 

147- 

10 

8981-07 

13 

78-289 

182-9 

4351-2 

14 

88-8 

224-68 

4745-6 

16 

99-86 

272-96 

5165- 

16 

111-43 

5 

328-3 

11 

5610-7 

17 

123-53 

391-36 

6083-4 

18 

136-13 

462-71 

6584-3 

19 

149-24 

643-01 

7114-4 

20 

162-84 

6 

632-91 

12 

7674-5 

21 

176-92 

733-11 

22 

191-48 

844-28 

23 

206-51 

967-15 

24 

222. 

HOLLOW    COLUMNS. 


137 


HOLLOW  COLUMNS. 

Hollow  columns  fail  principally  by  crushing,  provided  the  length 
does  not  exceed  25  diameters  ;  indeed,  the  length  does  not  appear 
to  affect  the  strength  much  till  it  exceeds  60  diameters. 

The  comparative  strength  of  different  forms  and  of  different 
thicknesses  will  appear  so  distinctly  from  the  experiments  below, 
made  by  Mr.  Hodgkinson,  that  no  difficulty  will  be  found  in  ascer- 
taining the  strength  due  to  any  size  or  form  of  column  that  may 
be  required. 

SQUABE  COLUMNS  OF  PLATE  IBON  BIVETED. 
Column*  in  frtt  O  inches  long. 


SlM. 

Thick- 

!!•  M 

Proportion  of 
Thickness  to  Width. 

Proportion 
of  Length 
to  Width. 

Break'g  weight 
Tons  per  sq.in. 
Of  flection. 

4  in.  X  4  «>• 

•03 
•06 

J 

80  to  1 

4-9 
8-6 

< 

•1 

« 

10- 

t 

•2 

*"fr 

« 

12- 

8  in.  X  8  in. 

•06 

15tol 

6- 

« 

•14 

it 

9- 

« 

•22 

1 

« 

11-5 

' 

•25 

A 

it 

12- 

Column  8  feet  O  inches  long. 


18  X  18      |    -5 


practically          5-4  to  1      |         13-6 


Column  1O  feet  O  inches  long,  with  cells. 


8  in.  X  8  in.      -06     |^of  width  of  oellsj      15  to  1  8-6 


To    find    the    strength  of   any   Hollow   "Wrought    Iron 
Column. 

Tons  per  inch,  corresponding  to  the 
Sec.  area.  sq.  ins.  X       proportions  of  length  and  thick-  = 

ness  to  width  as  per  tables 
Breaking  weight,  tons. 

COLUMNS  OF  OBLONG  SECTION. 

The  strength  of  these  may  be  ascertained  by  the  same  rule  aa 
that  of  square  columns.  The  smallest  width  being  taken  in  calcu- 
lating the  proportion  of  height  to  width,  while  the  longest  side 
must  be  taken  into  consideration  in  calculating  the  proportion  of 
thickness  to  width. 


138 


CRANE. 
Column  10f,;tOi,irhfg  long. 


Size. 

Thick- 

Proportion  of 

Thickness  to 

:   Width. 

Proportion  of 

truth. 

Actual  Breaking 
weight  I 
sq.  in.  of  Section. 

8  in.  X  4  in. 

•06 

Th 

30  to  1 

6-78 

ROUND  COLUMNS  OF  PLATE  IEON  RIVETED. 


Columns  1O  feet  O  /-,<•/,->  long. 

.^'i  UK-  (  ni  >i  tn  n.i 
Reduced  in  L.-,<;/t/i. 

Di». 

Thick- 

Proportion 

of  thick. 

Proportion 
ofli-nirth  io 

Brnklng 
»    -    " 

BmklDK  WelgbU. 
Tnos  per  nquare  inch. 

Diameter. 

Uiuuftcr. 

£i5. 

6ft.01a.kNV. 

ine  ID.  long. 

H 

•1 

& 

BOtol 

6-5 

13-9 

5-8 

2 

•1 

60  to  1 

10-35 

14-8 

16-5 

2* 

•1 

2*5 

48  to  1 

13-3 

15-6 

16-3 

2* 

•24 

.^ 

48tol 

9-6 

15-6 

16- 

2* 

•21 

T^T 

48tol 

9-9 

IS- 

17- 

3 

•15 

sV 

40  to  1 

12-36 

IS- 

16-5 

4 

•15 

"fa 

30  to  1 

12-34 

IB- 

6 
6 

•1 
•18 

s 

20  to  1 
20  to  1 

15- 

18-6 

n- 

18-6 

It  would  seem  from  this  that  a  thickness  of  ^.  or  J  inch  in 
thickness  for  every  foot  in  diameter  is  a  good  proportion  lor  this 
kind  of  column.  . 

It  will  be  seen  from  these  experiments,  that  it  is  the  proportion 
of  thickness  to  the  width  of  cell  which  regulates  the  strength 
within  certain  limits  of  height. 

And  that  a  thickness  of  ^  or  J  inch  for  every  4  inches  in  width 
will  give  the  highest  result  practicable  for  square  columns. 


CRANE. 

The  strains  on  the  principal  parts  can  be  ascertained  with  great 
ease  in  the  following  manner — the  strength  being  proportioned 
accordingly. 

To  find  the  Strain  on  the  Post. 

Weight  suspended,  tons  X  Projection,  feet  _  Strain  on  top  of  post, 
Height  of  post  above  ground,  feet  tous- 

The  post  can  then  be  calculated  as  a  beam,  twice  as  long  as  this 
height  from  ground,  with  twice  the  weight  oa  the  middle.  [Set 
£  earns.] 


COLD    WATER    PUMP,   ETC.  139 

COLD  WATER  PUMP. 

Usually  }  of  cylinder  diameter  when  the  stroke  is  }  that  of  piston. 

To  find  the  proper  size,  under  any  circumstances,  capa- 
ble of  supplying  twice  the  quantity  ordinarily  used 
for  injection. 

Cub.  ft.  water  per  hour  used  In  cylinder  in  form  of  steam . 

Stroke  of  pump,  ft.  X  strokes  per  minute 

of  pump  in  square  feet. 

PEDESTAL  —  BRACKET. 

Pedestal. 
Good  proportions. 

Thickness  of  cover -4    of  diameter  of  bearing. 

"         of  sole  plate     *8  "  " 

Diameter  of  bolts -26          "  "        if  2. 

"  "      -18          "  ««        ifihereare4. 

Distance  between  bolts  twice  diameter  of  bearing. 

Bracket. 

Solid.     Metal  round  brass  equal  to  J  diameter  of  bearing. 

General  thickness  web,  etc.,  equal  to  j  diameter  oi  bearing. 
With  Feathen.     Width  at  lightest  equal  to  diameter  of  bearing. 
Thickness  equal  to  J  "  " 

FRICTION. 

From  Mr.  Rennie't  Experiment*. 

The  friction  of  metal  on  metal,  without  unguents, 
May  be  taken  at  \  of  the  weight  up  to  40  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 

|  •«         ««          100 

Brass  on  cast  iron  \       "         "          800  " 

Wrought  on  cast  iron  J "         "          500  " 

With  tallow  at     &  ot  the  weight. 

"   olive  oil  atyJy  " 

800  Ibs.  per  inch  forces  out  the  oil. 

Friction  of  journals  under  ordinary  circumstances  ,V  of  weight. 
"  well  oiled,  sometimes  only         ^         " 


CENTRIFUGAL  FORCE. 

5  per  mi 
in  terms  of  weight. 


(Revolutions  per  n»in.)«X  «Ka.  in  ft.  X  weight  =  Ccntrifugal  force 


140 


WEIGHTS    AND    VOLUMES. 


WEIGHTS  AND  VOLUMES  OF  VARIOUS  SUBSTANCES  IN 
ORDINARY  USE. 


SUBSTANCES. 

Cubic 
Foot. 

si 

n 

SUBSTANCES. 

II 

Oh 

HI 

METALS. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

WOODS. 

Lbs. 

Brass.  /  copper  67.  ) 
"       (zinc      83.j 

488.75 

.2829 

Pine,  yellow  

81.25 

66.248 
71  68 

"        gun  metal. 

543.75 

.3147 

Walnut,  bl'k,  dry. 

31.2") 

7L68 

sheets  

513.6 

.297 

Willow  

»<;..-,.  12 

sun 

"        wire  

521.16 

.3033 

dry  

30.375 

7o.744 

Copper  cast 

547.  L'5 

.3179 

'v       plates  

543.825 

.3167 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Iron,  cast  

4.VM.-J7 

.2607 

'       gun  Mii-lal  

466.5 

.27 

Air  

.075291 



1      lieavy  forging 

<7M 

SB 

Basalt,  mean  

175. 

12.8 

1      plates  

4M.5 

.27K7 

Brick,  fire  

1:17528 

16284 

"      wrought  bars. 

486.75 

.2816 

"        nil-all  

10.'. 

21961 

Lead,  cast.  
"      rolled  

709.5 
711.75 

.4106 
.4119 

Coal,  anthracite,  j 

•.71 
MU 

24.95S 
21.854 

Mercury,  60°  

848.7487 

.491174 

"     bitum.  mean 

Ml. 

2*. 

Steel,  plates  

:^7.7.-, 

,2833 

"     Cannel  

M.-7-, 

23609 

"     soft  

480.563 

.2833 

•'     Cumberland 

26.451 

Tin  

.2637 

"     Welsh  mean 

S'.viS 

27  569 

Zinc,  cast.  

I-J-.SI2 

.24s2 

Coke 

ii  •'"> 

:%:,  ^  i 

"      rolled  

440.437 

.2601 

Cotton,  bale,  mean 

148 

154.48 

WOODS. 

Cub.  Ft. 

"        "  pressd  | 

20. 
25. 

114. 
89.« 

in  a  ton. 

Earth,  clav  . 

I'll  fi°5 

18569 

Ash  

52.812 

•J2  in 

"      com'n  soil.. 

fr!  -••. 

16  3'i5 

Bav  _  

51.375 

43601 

••            ••    gravel 

1'f4*  312 

20.49 

Coik..  . 

15. 

n»  ;:;; 

"       dry,  sand... 

l.ii! 

I8.M7 

Ce<lar  '...."'.. 

85062 

"       loose  

M.75 

25893 

Chesliiut  

88.125 

5S.754 

moist,  sand 

17  482 

Hickory,  pignut  
Sh.-ll-baik 

495 
43125 

4.-»  2.VJ 
51.942 

"      niDiilil...  
"       mud  

12-  .-.'.-, 
Ill'  -7.5 

17.482 

I'l  !)>7 

Llgnumvitae  
Logwood  
Mahog.  Hondur's  j 
Oak,  Cana<llan 

S:(  :i  •_' 
57.062 
&5. 
<i<U37 
51.5 

IUM 
MJH 

64. 
Si.714 
4.  101 

"       with  gravel 
Granite,  Qulncy... 
"     Su.squeh  na 
Hay,  bale  
"      pressi-d  

lL'ti.2-> 
l«5,7« 
. 
Jt,525 
Z\ 

17.742 

I.'!     11 

2H  .il7 
89.6 

"     English  
"     live,  seasoned 

58.25 

(K7.-> 

83..>>8 

India  rubber  
'•   vulcanized 

66437 

S9.60 

"     white,  dry  

6<.75 

41.574 

Mmestone  

19725 

11.355 

"       upland 
Pine,  pitch  
"      red,  

42.937 

41.25 

:-.-;  s?o 

52.169 
54.*i3 
W  745 

Marble,  mean  
VIortnr,  dry,  mean 
Water  fresh 

it;7.-7.-> 

97.98 

I8.S48 

.".">  *  l 

'      white  

84.696 

64.fi!« 

"     'salt 

61  125 

34931 

"      well  seasoned 

29..i62 

7.5.773 

steam....  ...::::;  

.0  C7J7 

TABLES    FOR    ENGINEERS,  ETC. 


141 


WEIGHT  OF  ONE  FOOT  OF  FLAT  BAR  IRON. 
If  a  bar  of  iron  be  thick*  r  tuun  c<>iiiutnt-d  in  tl 


the  weight  of  two  numbers,  or  treble  the  wt-lght  of  one  number. 
Wanted  the  w«M>;litof  1  foot  of  bar  iron,  4  inches  broad  and  2  1-1  In  h«-s 
thick.    Opposite  4  and  under  1  is  13.304,  which  doubled  Is  26.728;  add 
the  weight  of  1-lth  (3.341).  equal  30.009  Ibs. 

Breadth  in 

inches. 

THICKNESS  IN  PARTS  OF  AN  INCH. 

* 

A 

i 

A 

i 

* 

} 

i 

lin. 

1 

.835 

1.044 

1.253 

1.461 

1.670 

2.088 

2.506 

2.923 

3.340 

Ij^ 

J6B 

1.174 

1.409 

1.644 

1.878 

2.348 

2.818 

3.287 

B.700 

\\£ 

1.044 

1.305 

1.566 

1.826 

2.088 

2.609 

3.132 

3.653 

4.176 

% 

1.148 

1.435 

1.722 

2.009 

2.296 

2.870 

3.444 

4.018 

4.592 

i/ 

1.252 

i..  -,«;,; 

1.879 

2.192 

2.504 

3.131 

3.758 

4.384 

6.008 

/& 

1.358 

1.696 

2.035 

2.374 

2.716 

3.392 

4.070 

4.749 

5.432 

ax 

1.462 

1.827 

2.192 

2.557 

2.924 

3.653 

4.384 

6.114 

5.848 

r/ 

1.566 

1.957 

2.348 

2.740 

3.132     ."..'.Ml 

4.696 

5.479 

6.264 

2 

1.671 

2.088 

2.505 

2.922 

3.342    4.175 

5.010 

B4M 

6.684 

2\4 

1.775 

2.218 

2.662 

3.105 

3.550    4.435 

5.324 

6.210 

7.100 

2\£ 

1.880 

2.348 

2.818 

3.288 

3.760    4.696 

5.630 

6.575 

7.520 

2% 

1.984 

2.479 

2.975 

3.470 

3.968    4.957 

5.950 

6.941 

7.936 

2/4 

2.088 

2.609 

3.131 

3.653 

4.176 

5.218 

6.262 

7.306 

8.352 

2%     2.193 

2.740 

3.288 

3.836 

4.386 

5.479 

6.576 

7.671 

8.772 

2%     2.297 

2.870 

3.444 

4.018 

4.594 

5.740 

6.888 

8.036 

9.188 

1%      2.402 

3.001 

3.601 

4.201 

4.804    6.001 

7.202 

8.402 

9.608 

3 

2.506 

3.131 

3.758 

4.384 

5.012    6.262 

7.516 

8.767 

10.024 

3^ 

2.715 

3.392 

4.071 

4.749 

5.430 

6.784 

8.142 

9.498  10.860 

3/4 

2.923 

3.653 

4.384 

5.114 

5.846 

7.306 

8.768 

10.  •_••_'*  n.c'.tu 

3^ 

3.132 

3.914 

4.697 

5.479 

6.264 

7.828 

9.394 

10.960  12.528 

4 

3.341 

4.175 

5.010 

5.845 

6.682 

8.350 

10.020 

UL690|18JM 

41^ 

3.549 

4.436 

5.323 

6.210 

7.098 

8.871 

10.646 

12.421  14.196 

A  IS 

3.758 

4.697 

5.636 

6.575 

7.516 

9.393 

11.272 

13.151 

15.032 

4% 

3.966 

4.958 

5.949 

6.941 

7.932 

9.915 

11.898 

13.881 

15.864 

6 

4.175 

6.219 

6.263 

7.306 

8.350  10.437 

12.526 

14.612  16.700 

6>/£ 

4.384 

5.479 

6.576 

7.671 

8.768  10.958 

13.152 

15.343  17.536 

8/4 

4.593 

6.741 

B.880 

8.037 

9.1861  11.480  13.778 

16.0731  18.372 

65^ 

4.801 

6.001 

7.202 

8.402 

9.602  12.002  14.404 

16.804  19.204 

6 

6.010 

6.262 

7.515 

8.767  1  10.020  12.524  15.030 

17.535  20.042 

WEIGHT  OF  ONE  SQUARE  FOOT  OF  SHEET  IRON,  ETC. 

i 

Iron.. 
Cop... 
enm 

Thickness  by  the  Birmingham  (Eng.)  Wire  Gauge. 

—  1—  1— 
126012.0011.00 

14.50  13.90  12.75 
13.75  13.20  12.10 

4    1    5 

1000  ~874 
H.tO  10.10 

11.  >•    •>...! 

6    1  7    |  8 

si.  7.50  <;>'; 

9.40  8.70  7.90 
8.93  8.25  7.54 

• 

JiTI 
7.20 
UN 

10       11       1J 

5.62'5.00  4.38 
0.50  5>0  5.08 
6.18:5.50  4.81 

13 

ITS 
L84 

1.1-2 

14 

ua 

8.60 
tM 

II 

2>2 
::.-7 
3.10 

Thickness  by  the  Wire  Gauge. 


16 

17  |  18 

19  |  20 

21  •  22 

• 

24 

-'> 

.<•> 

•27 

• 

29 

M 

Iron.. 

?50 

2.  IS  l.gfl 

1.701.54 

1.40  1.25 

1.12 

1  Oil 

n 

V 

7-.1 

11 

.56 

n 

C,p.. 
Briiss 

2.90 
2.75 

2.52  2.15 
2.40:2.04 

1.9711.78 
1.87  1.69 

1.02  1.45 
1.54  1.37 

1.301  1.16 
1.23  1.10 

1.1  '-i 
M 

JI 

36 

M 

.711 

.71 

.70 

.64 
.61 

M 

a 

No.  1  Wire  Gauge  is  5-10th  of  an  inch :  No.  4  Is  l-4th :  No.  11  is  l-8th : 
No.  13  is  1-12U> ;  No.  15  is  l-14th ;  No.  16  Is  l-18th ;  No.  17  Is  l-18th ;  No.  19 
IB  1-23;  No.  22  is  1-32. 


142 


WEIGHT    OF    BAB    IRON,  ETC, 


RUSSIA  SHEET  IRON 


Measures  56  bv2S  Inches,  and  is  ruled  by  tho  \vHfsh  t  per  sheet    The 
nutnbern  run  from  8  to  18  Ku^i  'ii  li>«.  p.  r  she,  i.    s  Russian  pounds 
e<|Ual  7.2  KimlMi  ,.i,tr  -Is;  <•     <.l  M>«.;  1"     'Jll.s.;  11  --lOll.s.;   ll'     11.  'J  Ihs. 

&j.    100  Russian  lb-.  «  qu.ii  '.o  li>-.  English. 

WEIGHT  OF  ONE  SftTJABE  FOOT  OF  PLATE  IBON,  ETC. 

£•3 

««s 

III 

1 

. 

. 

a$a 

Si 

« 

111 

| 

! 

1 

1 

Iff 

I 

M 

1 

PQ 

1 

2.5 

29 

2.7 

37 

» 

175 

203 

19.0 

259 

50 

6.8 

5.5 

7.4 

1 

200 

23.2 

21.8 

29.6 

75 

87 

82 

11.1 

| 

25.0 

288 

271 

37.0 

| 

10.0 

116 

10.9 

148 

1 

30.0 

34.7 

325 

444 

~ff 

125 

145 

136 

185 

| 

35.0 

40.4 

379 

67.8 

1 

150 

174 

163 

222 

1 

400 

462 

433 

69.2 

WEIGHT  ONE  FOOT  IN  LENGTH  OF  SO.UABE  AND  BOUND  BAB 
IBON. 


£  ^ 

a 

.2 

g 

fl 

c 

5 

^ 

o 

.5  £ 

fi 

a  . 

£    K 

fl   . 

et   . 

r. 

1 

_j 

a  . 

Tj.a 

If 

^1 

202 
•6 

M  a 

:1 

'— 
~ 

— 
o 

a 

B*3 

-"  a 

a  a 

il 

o| 

e'^ 

ll 

a  §, 

a 
r: 

a 

|l 

c| 

ll 

3 
OD 

i 

11 

I 

o 

Q5 

55 

~a 

1 

i 

| 

.209 

,1(14 

Ii 

8820 

6928 

8 

\ 

46.969 

36.895 

A 

.326 

.25fi 

If 

10229 

8.043 

;; 

; 

60153 

39.390 

1 

.470 

.3K9 

1» 

11.743 

9224 

4 

53.440 

41.984 

tV 

.640 

5o:> 

2 

13.360 

10496 

4 

, 

56.833 

44637 

| 

.835 

.656 

2i 

15.083 

11846 

4 

(j  i  :\'2\) 

47.385 

A 

1.057 

.831 

2^ 

16908 

13283 

-J 

63930 

50.211 

1 

1305 

1.025 

2| 

18.840 

14797 

4 

67.637 

63.132 

.u. 

1.579 

1.241 

2J 

20.875 

16.396 

4 

71445 

66113 

^ 

1.879 

1.476 

ll" 

23.115 

18146 

4 

75359 

•V.)  is? 

i4 

2205 

1732 

2| 

2-5.259  19.842 

-! 

79378 

62344 

^. 

2558 

2.011 

2i 

27.608 

21.C.S4 

5 

83.510 

65585 

it 

2936 

2.306 

3 

30.070 

28.658 

r- 

\ 

92459 

72.618 

1 

3340 

2624 

31 

32618 

2.5.620 

6 

, 

101.036 

79370 

n 

4.22S 

3  321 

4 

35.279 

27.709 

110.429 

86  7.51 

it 

5.219 

4099 

31 

38.04n 

i 

0 

11:0243 

94.610 

if 

6.315 
7.516 

4961 
5.913 

3. 

40916 
43  890 

•'-  1  "'  fhewelghl  oflMrlroi 

34472|i  ;;    ;;    ;;  ^,lron  "  ,-^ 

WEIGHT    OP    METALS. 


143 


CAST  IBON. 


WEIGHT  OF  A  FOOT  IN  LENGTH  OF  SQUARE 
AND  ROUND. 


SQUARE. 


ROUND. 


Size.  |  Weight;!  Size.     Weight  [   Size. 


Weight  |  Size.  (Weight 


Inches 
Siuurr 

g 


Pounds 

.78 
1.22 
1.75 
2.39 
3.12 
3.95 
4.88 
5.90 
7.03 
8.25 

m98 

12.50 

14.11 

15.81 

17.62 

19.53 

21.53 

23.63 

25.83 

28.12 

80.B 

33. 

35.59 

38. '.'8 

41.06 

43.94 

46.92 

50. 

53.14 

56.44 

59.81 

63.28 

66.84 

70.50 


Inches 
Square 


| 

6% 


10 


Pounds 

74.26 
78.12 
82.08 
86.13 
90.28 
94.53 
98.87 
103.32 
107.86 
112.50 
122.08 
132.03 
142.38 
158.12 
164.25 
175.78 
187.08 
200. 
212.56 
225.78 
239.25 
253.12 
207.38 
282. 
297.07 
312.50 
328.32 
344.53 
361.13 
378.12 
395.50 
413.28 
431.44 
450. 


'  Inches 
Diam. 


Pounds 

.61 

.95 

1.38 

1.87 

2.45 

3.10 

3.83 

4.04 

5.52 

6.48 

7.51 

8.62 

9.81 

11.08 

12.42 

1384 

15.33 

16.91 

18.56 

20.28 

22.18 

23.96 

25.92 

27.95 

30.16 

32.25 

34.51 

36.85 

39.27 

41.76 

44.27 

46.97 

49.70 

52.50 

55.37 


Inches  I 


Pounds 

58.32 
61.35 
64.46 
67.04 
70.09 
74.24 
77.05 
81.14 
84.71 
88.35 
95.87 


111.8-J 

120.26 

129. 

138.05 

147. -41 

157-08 

167.05 

177.10 

187.91 

198.79 

210. 

221.50 

233.31 

245.43 

WT.fifl 

270.69 


ISM;.  -.17 


824.59 

3.-W.85 
353.43 


STEEL.— WEIGHT  OF  A  FOOT  IN  LENGTH  OF  FLAT. 


Size. 

Thick. 
1-4  In. 

.  hi.-k. 
3-8ths. 

Thick. 
1-2  in. 

181*6. 

Thid; 
1-4  in. 

Thick, 
38ths 

Thick, 
1-2  In. 

Thl.-k, 
.3-8th& 

Inch. 

Ihs. 

M.S. 

RM 

In^-h. 

]h« 

n>« 

]h« 

Ihs. 

1 

.852 
.958 

1.-J7 
1.43 

1.70 
1.91 

z.io       2>^' 
2.39        I'-; 

2.13 
8.34 

3.20 
3.51 

4.26 
4.'58 

5.32 
5.85 

\\£ 

1.06 

LW 

2.13 

2.66       3 

3.83 

5.11 

6.39 

1%  (  1.17 

1.75 

2.!'2       3'^ 

2.77 

4.15 

5.53 

6.92 

1.-J7 

L91 

2.55 

3.19   „   3U 

2.98 

4.47 

5.98 

7.45 

1»^ 

1.49 

2.23 

2.98 

q  "1>              q«/ 
.V  I  J           tJ^j 

3.19 

479 

6.38 

7.98 

2 

1.70 

L55 

3.40 

4.26       4 

3.40 

5.10 

6.80 

8.52 

2j^ 

1.91 

2.87 

3.83 

4.79  |J 

10 

144 


WEIGHT    OF    METALS. 


PATENT  IMPEOVED  LEAD  PIPE. 
SIZES  AND  WEIGHT  PEK  FOOT. 


Weight 
per  toot 


10 
12 

1      0 

1     8 

8 

10 

12 

14 

1      0 


Weight 

ii-.-r  (•  •  -i 


Ibs.  oz 
1      4 


1      0 

1  8 

2  0 
2    12 

12 
14 


Calibre 


Inches. 


Weight 
perl    •. 


Ibs.  oz. 
1      4 


2  8 

3  0 

4  0 
1  8 

1  12 

2  0 

2  8 

3  0 


SHEET  LEAD.— Weight  of  a  Square  Foot,  2*4,  3,  3X,  4,  4}*,  5,  6, 
7,  8)*,  9, 10  Ibs.,  and  upwards. 

BRASS,  COPPER,  STEEL  AND  LEAD. 
WEIGHT  OF  A  FOOT. 


Diam.& 
side  of 
Square. 

BR 

Weight 
of 
Round. 

VSS.            1  1          COPPER. 

8TE 
Weight 
of 
Round. 

EL.                          LEAD. 

wjB 

Square. 

Weight 
Round. 

WJ* 

Square. 

*5= 

Square. 

Weight 
of 
Round. 

Weight 
Square. 

In. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbi. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

.17 

.22 

.19 

.24 

.17 

.21 

% 

.39 

.50 

.42 

.64 

.88 

.4S 

V» 

.70 

.90 

.75 

.96 

.67 

.85 

X» 

1.10 

1.40 

1.17 

1.50 

1.04 

LSI 

H7 

1.59 

2.02 

1.69 

2.16 

1.60 

I.M 

my 

2.16 

2.75 

2.31 

2.94 

2.05 

2.61 

2.83 

8.60 

Ml 

8.S4 

2.67 

3.40 

Ml 

4.93 

\s 

3.58 

-4  .-,•; 

s  -J 

4.86 

3.33 

4.34 

4.90 

MB 

o 

4.42 

5.*) 

4.71 

6. 

4.18 

Ml 

6.06 

7.71 

.1  ' 

6.35 

6.81 

6.71 

7.27 

6.06 

6.44 

7.33 

9.33 

i? 

6.36 

8.10 

6.79 

>  ,..-, 

UM 

7.67 

8.72 

11  11 

i? 

7.47 

9.51 

7.94 

10.15 

7.07 

9. 

IftJN 

1X.01 

K 

8.66 

1LM 

9.21 

11.77 

8.20 

10.14 

11.W 

15.12 

J7Z 

9.95 

J2.66 

10.61 

13.52 

9.41 

11  '..-i 

i3.»a 

17.36 

2 

11.32 

14.41 

1208 

15.:* 

10.71 

13.63 

15.51 

10.75 

2V^ 

12.78 

16.27 

13.64 

17.36 

12.05 

17  .'.I 

2.  .29 

21  ** 

14.32 

18.24 

15.29 

19.47 

13.51 

17.20 

19.63 

B, 

99 

15.!»6 

KM 

17.03 

21.69 

15.05 

19.17 

21.HO 

a7.«0 

2V* 

17.68 

22.53 

i>  vr 

•-.'i«: 

1668 

21.21 

24.24 

30.88 

2^7 

19.50 

21.S3 

20.81 

26.50 

18.39 

23.41 

2672 

31.02 

2/4 

21.40 

27.25 

2_'sj 

29.08 

20.18 

25.70 

29.:« 

37.31 

2j2 

21.89 

29.78 

24.92 

81.79 

2206 

28.10 

S.'.oi 

40.81 

3 

25.47 

32.43 

27.18 

34.61 

24.21 

80.60 

34.90 

44.44 

CAST  IRON. 
WEIGHT  OF  A  SUPERFICIAL   FOOT  FROM   \i  TO  2  INCHES  THICK. 


In. 


Weight!)   SiJ 


Lbs. 
9.37 
14.06 

18.75 


Weight) [   Size.   |Weighi 


Lbs. 
23.43 
88.13 

32.81 


. 

37.50 
42.18 
46.87 


"Size.   iWeighT 


Lbs. 
51..V5 


Sire.   I  Weight 


In. 

2  " 


70.31 
75. 


EQUAL-SIDED    TIMBER    MEASURE.        145 


CAST  IRON. 
Weight  of  a  Foot  in  Length  of  Flat  Cast  1 

f<m. 
ThickT 
Kin. 

Thick, 
1  inch. 

Width  of 
Iron. 

Thick, 
•^in. 

Thick, 
Kin- 

Thick, 
Kin. 

Thick, 
Kin. 

Thick, 
Kin. 

Inches. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

11)3. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

2 

1.56 

2.34 

3.12 

3.90 

4.68 

5.46 

6.25 

2j^ 

1.75 

2.63 

3.51 

4.39 

5.27 

6.15 

7.03 

2Ji 

1.95 

2.92 

3.90 

4.88 

5.85 

6.83 

7.81 

2j£ 

2.14 

3.22 

4.29 

5.37 

6.44 

7.51 

8.59 

3 

2.34 

3.51 

4.68 

5.85 

7.03 

8.20 

9.37 

3Vi 

2.53 

3.80 

5.07 

6.34 

7.61 

8.88 

10.15 

3M 

2.73 

4.10 

5.46 

6.83 

8.20 

9.57 

10.93 

3«^ 

2.93 

4.39 

5.85 

7.32 

8.78 

10.25 

11.71 

4 

3.12 

4.6S 

6.25 

7.81 

9.37 

10.93 

12.50 

4}* 

3.32 

4.97 

6.64 

8.30 

9.96 

11.62 

13.28 

*5f 

3-51 

5.27 

7.03 

8.78 

10.54 

12.30 

14.06 

4* 

3.71 

5.56 

7.42 

9.27 

11.13 

12.98 

14.84 

5 

3.90 

0.86 

7.81 

9.76 

11.71 

13.67 

15.62 

6}^ 

4.10 

6.15 

8.20 

10.25 

12.30 

14.35 

16.40 

51^ 

4.29 

6.44 

8.59 

10.74 

12.89 

15.03 

17.18 

53^ 

4.49 

6.73 

8.98 

11.23 

13.46 

15.72 

17.96 

6 

l.'i.S 

7.03 

9.37 

11.71 

14.06 

16.40 

IK.  7^5 

SOLID  CONTENTS  OF  EQUAL-SIDED  TIMBER. 
If  the  log  is  shorter  than  is  contained  in  the  table,  take,  half  or 
quarter  of  some  length;  if  longer,  double  some  length.  The  length 
of  the  log  is  given  on  the  top  of  the  columns,  the  diameter  in  the 
left  hand  column.  To  obtain  the  cubical  contents  of  masts,  spars, 
round  logs,  &c.,  subtract  one- fourth  from  the  contents. 


c-=   Lft 

L. 

L. 

L. 

L. 

L.       L. 

T 

L. 

L. 

L. 

L. 

9 

10 

11 

12 

18 

14       15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

1 

7 

^ 

23 
30 

j     | 

2    i 
3    4 

2    II 
8    7 

3    0 
4    1 

3    8 
4    5 

8639 
4951 

4    0 

5 

4    3 
6    9 

il 

8  10 

11 

9    8 

6    0 
610 
9    8 

I 

52 

5    9 

6    2 

A    9 

7    4 

7  111  869 

9    8 

10    8 

1010 

11    6 

H 

62 

6  10 

7    8 

8    4 

9    0 

9    8  10    4    H 

11    8 

12   4 

13    0 

13    8 

11 

76 

8    4 

9    8 

10    1 

1011 

11    9  12    7 

13 

14    8 

15    1 

16    9 

u 

90 

10   0 

11    C 

12    0  13    0 

14    0  15    0 

16    ( 

17    0 

18    0 

19    0 

20    0 

l  ; 
n 
]  , 

104 
122 
14  2 

11    711210 
13   7  14  11 
15   9  17    2 

14    111    8 
16    4  17    8 
18    920    4 

16    617    9 
131120    3 
21  10  23    6 

18 
21 
25 

19  11 
2211 
28   7 

21    1 

H! 

22    8 
29 

23    6 
2611 
31    4 

i.i 

160 

17  HI 

19    6 

21    4|23    1 

24  10  28    7 

28 

80    1 

21  10 

S3 

35    4 

17 

180 

20    0 

2    0 

24    I  :•;    1 

28    1  30    1 

82 

84    1 

86    1 

38 

40    1 

is 

•jo  :! 

22    6 

21    9 

27    029    3 

41    6  43    9 

86 

88    8 

40    6 

42 

45   0 

1'.' 

226 

r,    o 

ft    830    1 

32    7 

35    1  37    7 

41 

43    7 

46    1 

48 

62    0 

• 

2>0 

27  10 

30  10:33    4 

36    1133  10  41    7 

44 

47    2 

50    0 

52 

65    9 

B 

2/7 

M     s 

«    936    9 

39  10  42  11  46    0 

49 

52    2 

65    3 

53 

61    6 

• 

302 

;t    i; 

16  10  40    4 

44    8  47    050    41  63 

57    0 

60    4 

63 

67    0 

:?l  0 

36    8 

40    4  44    1 

47    9 

.51    6  55    1 

68 

62    5 

66    1 

69 

73    5 

II 

360 

40    0 

41    048    0 

•  >•!    0 

56    0  60    0 

61 

63    0 

72    0 

76    0 

80    0 

• 

9  0 

43    4 

43    152    1 

-..;   r, 

60    9  65    1 

69    5 

73    9 

78    1 

82    5 

86    9 

• 

4J  2 

4611 

51    756    4 

61    0 

05    870    4 

75    0 

79    8 

84    4 

89    0    93    8 

LT 

4.57 

.-,•»    s 

55    9160    9 

(H  10 

;.>  n  71!    n 

81    1 

86    2 

91    7 

M    8  liil  11 

• 

49  0 

51    6 

59  10,65    4 

70    9 

78    2  81    7 

85    0 

92    6 

97  10  '103    3  108    8 

• 

536 

•5S    4 

04    2(70    1 

7511 

81    9  87    7 

H     .5 

99    3 

108    1 

11211 

117    9 

M 

55  9 

62    0,63    3175    0 

81    8 

87    6  93    9  100    0 

106    3 

112    6 

118    9  125    0 

146  LOGS  REDUCED  TO  BOARD  MEASURE. 


LOGS  REDUCED  TO  ONE  INCH  BOAED  MEASURE. 
If  the  log  is  longer  than  is  contained  in  tin-  table,  take  any  two 

Tin-  first  column  on  the  left  gives  the  length  of  the  log  in  feet. 
The  figures  under  D  denote  the  diameters  of  the  logs  in  inches. 
Fractional  parts  of  inches  are  not  given. 

The  diameter  of  timber  is  usually  taken  120  f.-.-t  from  the  butt. 
All  logs  short  of  20  feet,  take  the  diameter  at  the  top,  or  small  end. 

To  find  the  number  of  feet  of  boards  which  a  log  will  produce 
when  sawed,  take  the  length  of  feet  in  the  first  column  on  the  left 
hand,  and  the  diameter  at  the  top  of  the  page  in  inches. 

Suppose  a  log  12  feet  long  and  24  inches  in  diameter;  in  the  left 
hand  column  is  the  length,  and  opposite  12  under  24  is  300,  the 
number  of  feet  of  boards  in  a  log  of  that  length  and  diameter. 


D.   D.   D.   D.   1>.   D.   D.  I  D.   D.   D.   D.   D.  D. 

12   13   14   15   16   17   18  I  i»   20   21   22   23   24 


!.-,!( 


11.-, 


198 


188 


If,  I 


146 


IU 


217 


1.11 


217 


111 


21  » 


171 


459 


S--7 


108 


I'.T 


.7.7 


42(5 


51 'J 


4,r, 


57<> 


57S 


71!) 


S:!4 
872 
910  I  98*2 
9  IS  1023 
986  lOW 
lo.'l  IK  r> 
liltij  II  IK 
1100  |  1187 
1138  12-28 
1176  !  1269 


978 


!»7K 

1 1  )_>.-> 


1270 


1417 


12R6 


1116 


746 
803 
861 
919 
976 
1034 
10J2 
1148 
1  06 
1264 


1310  I  1376 
1365  I  1434 


14-JO 


1550 


WEIGHT    OF    CASTINGS.  147 


RELATIVE    STRENGTH   OF    CAST  AND  MALLE- 
ABLE IRON. 

It  has  been  found,  in  the  course  of  the  experiments  made  by 
Mr.  Hodgkinson  and  Mr.  Fairbairn,  that  the  average  strain  that 
oast  iron  will  bear  in  the  way  of  tension,  before  breaking,  is  about 
seven  tons  and  a  half  per  square  inch ;  the  weakest,  in  the  course 
of  16  trials  on  various  descriptions,  bearing  6  tons,  and  the  strong- 
est 9}  tons.  The  experiments  of  Telford  and  Brown  show  that 
malleable  iron  will  bear,  on  an  average,  27  tons;  the  weakest 
bearing  24,  and  the  strongest  29  tons.  On  approaching  the  break- 
ing point,  cast  iron  may  snap  in  an  instant,  without  any  previous 
symptom,  while  wrought  iron  begins  to  stretch,  with  half  its 
breaking  weight,  and  so  continues  to  stretch  till  it  breaks.  The 
experiments  of  Hodgkinson  and  Fairbairn  show  also  that  cast  iron 
is  capable  of  sustaining  compression  to  the  extent  of  nearly  50 
tons  on  the  square  inch ;  the  weakest  bearing  36}  tons,  and  the 
strongest  60  tons.  In  this  respect,  malleable  iron  is  much  inferior 
to  cast  iron.  With  12  tons  on  the  square  inch  it  yields,  contracts 
in  length,  and  expands  laterally ;  though  it  will  bear  27  tons,  or 
more,  without  actual  fracture. 


WEIGHT. 

To  find  the  Weight  of  any  Casting. 

Width  in  }  ins.  x  Thickness  in  £  ins.,  or  rice  versa,  -f-  10  X 
Length,  ft.  =  Weight,  Ibs.  cast  iron. 

For  instance:  to  find  the  weight  of  a  casting  31  ins.  V  li  ins- 
X  2  ft.  6  ins.  long. 

13  X  9  -T-  10  =  11-7  X  2-5  =  29-25  Ibs. 

This  rule  is  very  useful,  and  can  easily  be  remembered  in  the 
following  form. 

Width  in  J  ins.  X  Thickness  in  }  ins.  or  vice  versa,  cut  off  1 
figure  for  decimal,  the  result  is  Ibs.  per  foot  of  length. 

For  wrought  iron  add  .-,',.,'  'i  to  the  result ;  for  lead  add  } ;  for 
brass  add  }th  ;  for  copper  add  $th. 

To  find  the  Weight  from  the  Areas. 

Area,  sq.  ins.  X  Length,  ft.  X  3f  =  Weight,  Ibs.  cast  iron. 

Multiplier  for  Cast  iron 3-1-56  or  31. 

'«  Wrought  iron 8-312  or  3*. 

Lead 4-854. 

"  Brass 3-644. 

"  Copper 3-87. 

Or,  Area,  sq.  ins.  X  10  =  Ibs.  per  yard  for  wrought  iron. 


148  WHEEL    GEARING. 

To  find  the  "Weight  in  cwts. 

Area,  aq.  ins.  X  Length,  ft.  H-  31-9  =  Weight,  cwts.  cast  iron. 
For  wrought  iron,  divide  by  33-6. 

WHEEL  GEARING. 

The  Pitch  Line  of  a  wheel,  is  the  circle  upon  which  the  pitch 
is  measured,  and  it  is  the  circumference  by  which  the  diameter, 
or  the  velocity  of  the  wheel,  is  measured. 

The  Pitch,  is  the  arc  of  the  circle  of  the  pitch  line,  and  is  de- 
termined by  the  number  of  the  teeth  in  the  wheel. 

The  True  Pitch  (Chordial),  or  that  by  which  the  dimensions 
of  the  tooth  of  a  wheel  are  alone  determined,  is  a  straight  line 
drawn  from  the  centres  of  two  contiguous  teeth  upon  the  pitch 
line. 

The  Line  of  Centres,  is  the  line  between  the  centres  of  two 
wheels. 

The  Radius  of  a  wheel,  is  the  semi-diameter  running  to  the 
periphery  of  a  tooth.  The  Pitch  Radius,  is  the  semi-diameter 
running  to  the  pitch  line. 

The  Length  of  a  Tooth,  is  the  distance  from  its  base  to  its 
extremity. 

The  Breadth  of  a  Tooth,  is  the  length  of  the  face  of  wheel. 

A  Cog  Wheel,  is  the  general  term  for  a  wheel  having  a  num- 
ber of  cogs  or  teeth  set  upon  or  radiating  from  its  circumference. 

A  Mortise  Wheel,  is  a  wheel  constructed  for  the  reception 
of  teeth  or  cogs,  which  are  fitted  into  recesses  or  sockets  upon 
the  face  of  the  wheel. 

Plate  Wheels,  are  wheels  without  arms. 

A  Rack,  is  a  series  of  teeth  set  in  a  plane. 

A  Sector,  is  a  wheel  which  reciprocates  without  forming  a  full 
revolution. 

A  Spur  Wheel,  is  a  wheel  having  its  teeth  perpendicular  to 
its  axis. 

A  Bevel  Wheel,  is  a  wheel  having  its  teeth  at  an  angle  with 
its  axis. 

A  Crown  Wheel,  is  a  wheel  having  its  teeth  at  a  right  angle 
with  its  axis. 

A  Mitre  Wheel,  is  a  wheel  having  its  teeth  at  an  angle  of  45° 
•with  its  axis. 

A  Face  Wheel,  is  a  wheel  having  its  teeth  set  upon  one  of  its 
sides. 

An  Annular  or  Internal  Wheel,  is  a  wheel  having  its  teeth  con- 
vergent to  its  centre. 

Spur  Gear.  —  Wheels  which  act  upon  each  other  in  the  same 
plane. 

Bevel  Gear.  —Wheels  which  act  upon  each  other  at  an  angle. 

When  the  tooth  of  a  wheel  is  made  of  a  material  different  from 


WHEEL    GEARING.  149 

that  of  the  wheel,  it  is  termed  a  Cog;  in  a  pinion  it  is  termed  a 
Leaf,  and  in  a  trundle  a  Stave. 

A  wheel  which  impels  another  is  termed  the  Spur,  Driver,  or 
Leader  ;  the  one  impelled  is  the  Pinion,  Driven,  or  Follower. 

A  series  of  wheels  iti  connection  with  each  other  is  termed  a 
Train. 

When  two  wheels  act  upon  one  another,  the  greater  is  termed 
the  "Wheel  and  the  lesser  the  Pinion. 

A  Trundle,  Lantern,  or  Wallower  is  when  the  teeth  of  a 
pinion  are  constructed  of  round  brass  or  solid  cylinders  set  into 
two  discs. 

A  Trundle  with  less  than  eight  staves  cannot  be  operated 
uniformly  by  a  wheel  with  any  number  of  teeth. 

The  material  of  which  cogs  are  made  is  about  one-fourth  the 
strength  of  cast  iron.  The  product  of  their  bd*  should  be  four 
times  that  of  iron  teeth. 

Buchanan:  Rules  that  to  increase  or  diminish  velocity  in  a 
given  proportion,  and  with  the  lea^t  quantity  of  wheel-work,  the 
number  of  teeth  in  each  pinion  should  be  to  the  number  of  teeth 
in  its  wheel  as  1 :  3-59.  Even  to  save  space  and  expense,  the  ratio 
should  never  exceed  1  :  6. 

The  least  number  of  teeth  that  it  is  practicable  to  give  to  a  wheel 
is  regulated  by  the  necessity  of  having  at  least  one  pair  always  in 
action,  in  order  to  provide  for  the  contingency  of  a  tooth  breaking. 

The  teeth  of  wheels  should  be  as  small  and  numerous  as  is  con- 
sistent with  strength. 

When  a  Pinion  is  driven  by  a  wheel,  the  number  of  teeth 
in  the  pinion  should  not  be  less  than  eight. 

When  a  Wheel  is  driven  by  a  pinion,  the  number  of  teeth 
in  the  pinion  should  not  be  less  than  ten. 

The  Number  of  teeth  in  a  wheel  should  always  be  prime  to  the 
number  of  the  pinion;  that  is,  the  number  of  teeth  in  the  wheel 
should  not  be  divisible  by  the  number  of  teeth  in  the  pinion  with- 
out a  remainder.  This  is  in  order  to  prevent  the  same  teeth 
coming  together  so  often  as  to  cause  an  irregular  wear  of  their 
faces.  An  odd  tooth  introduced  into  a  wheel  is  termed  a  hunting 
tooth  or  cog. 

To  Compute  the  Pitch  of  a  "Wheel. 

RULK.  — Divide  circumference  at  the  pitch-line  by  the  number 
of  teeth. 

Example.  —  A  wheel  40  ins.  in  diameter  requires  75  teeth  ;  what 
is  its  pitch  T 

8-1416  X  40  =  1.- 
76 

To  Compute  the  True  or  Chordial  Pitch. 
RULE.  —  Divide  180°  by  the  number  of  teeth,  ascertain  the  sine 
of  the  quotient  and  multiply  it  by  the  diameter  of  the  wheel. 


150  WHEEL    GEARING. 

Example.  —  The  number  of  teeth  is  75,  and  the  diameter  40 
inches  ;  what  is  the  true  pitch  ? 

^2  =  2°  24'  and  fin.  of  2°  24'  =  -04188,  which  X  40  =  1-6752  im. 
70 

To  Compute  the  Diameter  of  a  Wheel. 

RULE.  —  Multiply  the  number  of  teeih  by  the  pitch,  and  divide 
the  product  by  3-1416. 

Example.  —  The  number  of  teeth  in  a  wheel  is  75,  and  the  pitch 
1-675  ins.  ;  what  is  the  diameter  of  it? 


To  Compute  the  Number  of  Teeth  in  a  Wheel. 
RULE.  —  Divide  the  circumference  by  the  pitch. 

To  Compute  the  Diameter  when  the  True  Pitch  is 
given. 

RULE.  —  Multiply  the  number  of  teeth  in  the  wheel  by  the  true 
pitch,  and  again  by  -3184. 

Example.  —  Take  the  elements  of  the  preceding  case. 
75  X  1-6762  X  '3184  =  40  ins. 

To  Compute  the  Number  of  Teeth  in  a  Pinion  or  Fol- 
lower to  have  a  given  Velocity. 

RULB.  —  Multiply  the  velocity  of  the  driver  by  its  number  of 
teeth,  and  divide  the  product  by  the  velocity  of  the  driven. 

Example.  —  The  velocity  of  a  driver  is  16  revolutions,  the  num- 
ber of  its  teeth  54,  and  the  velocity  of  the  pinion  is  48  ;  what  is 
the  number  of  its  teeth  ? 


2.  A  wheel  having  75  teeth  is  making  16  revolutions  per  minute  ; 
what  is  the  number  of  teeth  required  in  the  pinion  to  make  24 
revolutions  in  the  same  time? 


To  Compute   the   Proportional  Radius   of  a  Wheel   or 
Pinion. 

RULE.—  Multiply  the  length  of  the  line  of  centres  by  the  number 
of  teeth  in  the  wheel  for  the  wheel,  and  in  the  pinion  for  the 
pinion,  and  divide  by  the  number  of  teeth  in  both  the  wheel  and 
pinion. 


WHEEL    GEARING.  151 

To  Compute  the  Diameter  of  a  Pinion,  when  the  Di- 
ameter of  the  Wheel  and  Number  of  Teeth  in  the 
Wheel  and  Pinion  are  given. 

RULB. — Multiply  the  diameter  of  the  wheel  bj  the  number  of 
teeth  in  the  pinion,  and  divide  the  product  by  the  number  of  teeth 
in  the  wheel. 

Example. — The  diameter  of  a  wheel  is  25  inches,  the  number  of 
its  teeth  210,  and  the  number  of  teeth  in  the  pinion  30;  what  is 
the  diameter  of  the  pinion  T 


210 

To  Compute  the  Number  of  Teeth  required  in  a  Train 
of  Wheels  to  produce  a  given  Velocity. 

RULE. — Multiply  the  number  of  teeth  in  the  driver  by  its  num- 
ber of  revolutions,  and  divide  the  product  by  the  number  of  revo- 
lutions of  each  pinion,  for  each  driver  and  pinion. 

Example. — If  a  driver  in  a  train  of  three  wheels  has  90  teeth, 
and  makes  2  revolutions,  and  the  velocities  required  are  2,  10, 
and  18,  what  are  the  number  of  teeth  in  each  of  the  other  two? 

10  :  90  : :  2  :  18  =  teeth  in  Id  wheel. 
18:  90  : :  2 :  10  =  teeth  in  Zd  wheel. 

To  Compute  the  Circumference  of  a  Wheel. 
RCLB.— Multiply  the  number  of  teeth  by  their  pitch. 

To  Compute  the  Revolutions  of  a  Wheel  or  Pinion. 


.  —  Multiply  the  diameter  or  circumference  of  the  wheel  or 
the  number  of  its  teeth,  as  the  case  may  be,  by  (he  number  of  its 
revolutions,  and  divide  the  product  by  the  diameter,  circumfer- 
ence, or  number  of  teeth  in  the  pinion. 

Examplf.  —  A  pinion  10  inches  in  diameter  is  driven  by  a  wheel 
2  feet  in  diameter,  making  46  revolutions  per  minute;  what  is  the 
number  of  revolutions  of  the  pinion? 


To  Compute  the  Velocity  of  a  Pinion. 

RULE.  —  Divide  the  diameter,  circumference,  or  number  of  teeth 
in  the  driver,  as  the  case  may  be,  by  the  diameter,  etc.,  of  the 
pinion. 


152  WHEEL    GEARING. 

When  there  are  a  Series  or  Train  of  Wheels  and  Pinions. 

RULE.  —  Divide  the  continued  product  of  the  diameter,  circum- 
ference, or  number  of  teeth  in  the  wheels  by  the  continued  pro- 
duct of  the  diameter,  etc.,  of  the  pinions. 

Example  1.  —  If  a  wheel  of  32  teeth  drive  a  pinion  of  10,  upon 
the  axis  of  which  there  is  one  of  30  teeth,  driving  a  pinion  of  8, 
what  are  the  revolutions  of  the  last? 
32       30      960 


Example  2.—  The  diameters  of  a  train  of  wheels  are  6,  9,  9,  10, 
and  12  inches  ;  of  the  pinions,  6,  6,  6,  6,  and  6  inches  ;  and  the 
number  of  revolutions  of  the  driving  shaft  or  prime  mover  is  10; 
what  are  the  revolutions  of  the  last  pinion  ? 


To  Compute  the  Proportion  that  the  Velocities  of  the 
Wheels  in  a  Train  should  bear  to  one  another. 

RULE.  —  Subtract  the  less  velocity  from  the  greater,  and  divide 
the  remainder  by  one  less  than  the  number  of  wheels  in  the  train  ; 
the  quotient  is  the  number,  rising  in  arithmetical  progression  from 
the  less  to  the  greater  velocity. 

Example.  —  What  should  be  the  velocities  of  3  wheels  to  produce 
18  revolutions,  the  driver  making  3  ? 

.  _     _          —  =  7'5  =  number  to  be  added  to  velocity  of  the  driver 

=  7-5  +  3  =  10-5,  and  10-5  -f  7-5  ==  18  revolutions.    Hence  3,  10  5, 
and  18  are  the  velocities  of  the  three  wheels. 

General  Illustrations. 

1.  A  wheel  96  inches  in  diameter,  having  42  revolutions  per 
minute,  is  to  drive  a  shaft  75  revolutions  per  minute  ;  what  should 
be  the  diameter  of  the  pinion  ? 


= 
7o 

2.  If  a  pinion  is  to  make  20  revolutions  per  minute,  required 
the  diameter  of  another  to  make  68  revolutions  in  the  same  time. 

68  -7-  20  =  2-9  =  the  ratio  of  their  diameters.  Hence,  if  one  to 
make  20  revolutions  is  given  a  diameter  of  30  inches,  the  other 
will  be  30  -7-  2-9  =  10-345  inches. 

3.  Required  the  diameter  of  a  pinion  to  make  12J  revolutions 
in  the  same  time  as  one  of  32  inches  diameter  making  26. 


WHEEL    GEARINQ.  153 

4.  A  shaft,  having  22  revolutions  per  minute,  is  to  drive  another 
shaft  at  the  rate  of  15,  the  distance  between  the  two  shafts  upon 
the  line  of  centres  is  45  inches  ;  what  should  be  the  diameter  of 
the  wheels? 

Then,  1st.  22  -}-  16 :  22  : :  45  :  26-75  =  inches  in  the  radius  of  (he 
pinion. 
2d.  22  +  15 :  15  : :  45 :  18-24  =  inches  in  the  radius  of  the  spur. 

6.  A  driving  shaft,  having  16  revolutions  per  minute,  is  to  drive 
a  shaft  81  revolutions  per  minute,  the  motion  to  be  communicated 
by  two  geared  wheels  and  two  pulleys,  with  an  intermediate  shaft; 
the  driving  wheel  is  to  contain  54  teeth,  and  the  driving  pulley 
upon  the  driven  shaft  is  to  be  25  inches  in  diameter;  required  the 
number  of  teeth  in  the  driven  wheel,  and  the  diameter  of  the 
driven  pulley. 

Let  the  driven  wheel  have  a  velocity  of  y/lfi  x  81=36,  a  mean 
proportional  between  the  extreme  velocities  16  and  81. 

Then,  1st.  86  :  16  : :  54  :  24  =  teeth  in  the  driven  wheel. 

2d.  81  :  36  : :  25 :  11-11  =  inches  diameter  of  the  driven  pulley. 

6.  If,  as  in  the  preceding  case,  the  whole  number  of  revolu- 
tions of  the  driving  shaft,  the  number  of  teeth  in  its  wheel,  and 
the  diameters  of  the  pulleys  are  given,  what  are  the  revolutions 
of  the  shafts  ? 

Then,  1st.  18  :  16  : :  64  :  48  =  revolutions  of  the  intermediate  shaft. 
2d.  15  :  48  : :  25  :  80  =  revolutions  of  the  driven  shaft. 

To  Compute  the  Diameter  of  a  "Wheel  for  a  given  Pitch 
and  Number  of  Teeth. 

RULE.  —  Multiply  the  diameter  in  the  following  table  for  the 
number  of  teeth  by  the  pitch,  and  the  product  will  give  the  diam- 
eter at  the  pitch  circle. 

Example.— What  is  the  diameter  of  a  wheel  to  contain  48  teeth 
of  2-5  inches  pitch? 

15-29  X  2-5  =  88-225  inches. 

To  Compute  the  Pitch  of  a  "Wheel  for  a  given  Diameter 
and  Number  of  Teeth. 

RULE. — Divide  the  diameter  of  the  wheel  by  the  diameter  in 
the  table  for  the  number  of  teeth,  and  the  product  will  give  the 
pitch. 

Example.— What  is  the  pitch  of  a  wheel  when  the  diameter  of 
it  is  50-94  inches,  and  the  number  of  its  teeth  80? 
50-94 


154 


WHEEL    GEARING. 


PITCH  OF  "WHEELS. 

A  TABLE  WHEREBY  TO  COMPUTE  THE  DIAMETER  OF  A 
WHEEL  FOR  A  GIVEN  PITCH,  OR  THE  PITCH  FOR  A  GIVEN 
DIAMETER. 

From  8  to  192  feet. 


No.  of 

Diame- 

No. of 

Diame- 

No. of 

Diame- 

No. of 

Diame- 

No of 

Diame- 

Teeth. 

ter- 

Teeth. 

ter. 

Teeth. 

ter. 

Teeth. 

ter. 

Teeth. 

ter. 

8 

261 

45 

14-33 

82 

26-11 

119 

37-88 

156 

49-66 

9 

2-93 

46 

14-65 

83 

26-43 

120 

38-2 

157 

49-98 

10 

3-24 

47 

14-97 

84 

26-74 

121 

38-52 

168 

603 

11 

3-65 

48 

15-29 

85 

27-06 

122 

3884 

169 

50-61 

12 

3-86 

49 

15-61 

86 

27-38 

123 

39-16 

1GO 

60-93 

13 

4-18 

50 

15-93 

87 

27-7 

124 

39-47 

161 

51-25 

14 

4-49 

51 

16-24 

88 

28-02 

125 

39-79 

162 

51-67 

15 

4-81 

52 

16-56 

89 

28-33 

126 

40-11 

163 

51-89 

16 

6-12 

53 

16-88 

90 

28-65 

127 

40-43 

164 

62-21 

17 

6-44 

54 

17-2 

91 

28-97 

128 

40-75 

165 

52-52 

18 

5-76 

65 

17-52 

92 

29-29 

129 

41-07 

166 

52-84 

19 

6-07 

56 

17-8 

93 

29-61 

130 

41-38 

167 

63-16 

20 

6-39 

57 

18-15 

94 

29-93 

131 

41-7 

168 

68-48 

21 

6-71 

58 

18-47 

95 

30-24 

132 

42-02 

169 

53-8 

22 

7-03 

59 

18-79 

96 

30-66 

133 

42-34 

170 

54-12 

23 

7-34 

60 

19-11 

97 

30-88 

134 

42-66 

171 

54-43 

24 

7-66 

61 

19-42 

98 

31-2 

135 

42-98 

172 

54-75 

25 

7-98 

62 

19-74 

99 

31-52 

136 

43-29 

178 

65-07 

26 

8-3 

63 

20-06 

100 

31-84 

137 

43-61 

174 

55-39 

27 

8-61 

64 

20-38 

101 

82-15 

138 

43-93 

175 

55-71 

28 

8-93 

65 

20-7 

102 

8247 

139 

44-25 

176 

66-02 

29 

9-25 

t;o 

21-02 

103 

82-79 

140 

44-57 

177 

56-34 

30 

9-57 

67 

21-33 

104 

33-11 

141 

44-88 

178 

56-66 

81 

9-88 

68 

21-65 

105 

33-43 

142 

462 

179 

56-98 

32 

10-2 

08 

21-97 

106 

33-74 

143 

45-62 

180 

57-23 

83 

10-52 

TO 

22-29 

107 

34-06 

144 

45-84 

181 

57-62 

34 

10-84 

71 

22-61 

108 

34-38 

145 

4616 

182 

57-93 

85 

11-16 

72 

22-92 

109 

34-7 

146 

46-48 

183 

58-25 

36 

11-47 

73 

23-24 

110 

35-02 

147 

46-79 

184 

6867 

37 

11-79 

74 

23-56 

111 

35-34 

148 

47-11 

185 

58-89 

88 

12-11 

75 

23-88 

112 

35-65 

149 

47-43 

186 

59-21 

39 

1243 

76 

24-2 

113 

35-97 

150 

47-75 

187 

59-53 

40 

12-74 

77 

24-52 

114 

36-29 

161 

48-07 

'188 

59-84 

41 

13-06 

78 

24-83 

115 

36-61 

162 

48-39 

189 

60-16 

42 

13-38 

79 

25-15 

116 

36-93 

153 

48-7 

190 

60-48 

43 

13-7 

80 

25.47 

117 

37-25 

154 

49-02 

191 

60-81 

44 

14-02 

81 

25-79 

118 

37-56 

155 

49-34 

192 

61-13 

NOTE.  —  The  pitch  in  this  table  is  the  true  pitch, 
scribed. 


before  de- 


WHEEL    GEARING.  155 

To  Compute  the  Number  of  Teeth  of  a  Wheel  for  a  given 
Diameter  and  Pitch. 

RULK.  —  Divide  the  diameter  by  the  pitch,  and  opposite  to  the 
quotient  in  the  table  is  given  the  number  of  teeth.  (See  p.  154.) 

Change  'Wheels  in  Screw-cutting  Lathes, 
yp  I  =  N  ;  -pj  =  S.     T  representing  number  of  teeth  in  traverse 

tcrew ;  8  number  in  stud-wheel  gearing  in  mandril ;  t  number  in  wheel 
upon  mandril,  and  t'  number  in  gearing  upon  stud  pinion,  gearing  in  T ; 
I  number  of  threads  per  inch  upon  traverse  screw ;  N  number  to  be  cut. 

To  determine  the  Proportion  of  Wheels  for  Screw-cut- 
ting by  a  Lathe. 

In  a  lathe  properly  adapted,  screws  to  any  degree  of  pitch,  or 
number  of  threads  in  a  given  length,  may  be  cut  by  means  of  a 
leading  screw  of  any  given  pitch,  accompanied  with  change  wheels 
and  pinions;  coarse  pitches  being  effected  generally  hy  means  of 
one  wheel  and  one  pinion  with  a  carrier,  or  intermediate  wheel,  which 
cause  no  variation  or  change  of  motion  to  take  place.  Hence  the 
following 

RULE. —  Divide  the  number  of  threads  in  a  given  length  of  the 
screw  which  is  to  be  cut  by  the  number  of  threads  in  the  same 
length  of  the  leading  screw  attached  to  the  lathe;  and  the  quotient 
is  the  ratio  that  the  wheel  on  the  end  of  the  screw  must  bear  to 
that  on  the  end  of  the  lathe  spindle. 

Example. —  Let  it  be  required  to  cut  a  screw  with  5  threads  in 
an  inch,  the  leading  screw  being  of  J  inch  pitch,  or  containing  2 
threads  in  an  inch  ;  what  must  be  the  ratio  of  wheels  applied? 
6  -T-  2  =  2-5,  the  ratio  they  must  bear  to  each  other. 

Then  suppose  a  pinion  of  40  teeth  be  fixed  upon  for  the  spindle. 

40  X  2-5  =  100  teeth  for  the  wheel  on  the  end  of  the  screw. 

But  screws  of  a  greater  degree  of  fineness  than  about  8  threads 
in  an  inch  are  more  conveniently  cut  by  an  additional  wheel  and 
pinion,  because  of  the  proper  degree  of  velocity  being  more 
effectively  attained ;  and  these,  on  account  of  revolving  upon  a 
stud,  are  commonly  designated  the  stud  wheels,  or  stud-wheel  and 
pinion;  but  the  mode  of  calculation  and  ratio  of  screw  are  the  same 
as  in  the  preceding  rule.  Hence,  all  that  is  further  necessary  is 
to  fix  upon  any  three  wheels  at  pleasure,  as  those  for  the  spindle 
and  stud-wheels ;  then  multiply  the  number  of  teeth  in  the  spindle- 
wheel  by  the  ratio  of  the  screw,  and  hy  the  number  of  teeth  in  that 
wheel  or  pinion  which  is  in  contact  with  the  wheel  on  the  end  of 
the  screw;  divide  the  product  by  the  stud-wheel  in  contact  with 
the  spindle-wheel;  and  the  quotient  is  the  number  of  teeth  re- 
quired in  the  wheel  on  the  end  of  the  leading  screw. 

Example. — Suppose  a  screw  is  required  to  be  cut  containing  25 


156 


WHEEL    GEARING. 


threads  in  an  inch,  and  the  leading  screw,  as  before,  having  two 
threads  in  an  inch,  and  that  a  wheel  of  GO  teeth  is  fixed  upon  for 
the  end  of  the  spindle,  20  for  the  pinion  in  contact  with  the  screw- 
wheel,  and  100  for  that  in  contact  with  the  wheel  on  the  end  of 
the  spindle  ;  required  the  number  of  teeth  in  the  wheel  for  the 
end  of  the  leading  screw. 


25  4-  2  =  12-5,  and 


150  teeth. 


Or  suppose  the  spindle  and  screw-wheels  to  be  those  fixed  upon, 
also  any  one  of  the  stud-wheels,  to  find  the  number  of  teeth  in  the 
other. 


100  teeth. 


TABLE  OF  CHANGE  WHEELS  FOE  SCEEW-CTJTTINO. 
The  leading  Screw  being  *  inch  pitch,  or  containing  2  threads  in  an  inch. 


Number  of 
tee  thin 

Number  of  teeth  In 

Number  of  teeth  In 

s 

1 

JL 

j, 

1 

li 

j 

r 

ll 

I 

Pinion  in  contact 
with  Krew-  wheel. 

ji 

Number  of  thread!  in 

3* 

Wheel  in  contact 
with  spindle  wheel. 

1 

i 

1 

80 

40 

8 

lo~ 

55 

20 

~60~ 

19 

50 

95 

20 

100 

H 

80 

50 

8 

90 

85 

20 

90 

19* 

80 

120 

20 

130 

1* 

80 

60 

8; 

60 

70 

20 

75 

20 

60 

100 

20 

120 

if 

80 

70 

9; 

90 

90 

20 

95 

20J 

40 

90 

20 

90 

2 

80 

90 

9' 

40 

60 

20 

65 

21 

SI. 

120 

20 

140 

80 

90 

10 

60 

75 

20 

80 

22 

DO 

110 

20 

120 

80 

100 

10* 

60 

70 

20 

75 

22* 

HI 

120 

20 

150 

80 

110 

11 

60 

55 

20 

120 

22| 

80 

130 

20 

140 

3 

80 

120 

12 

90 

90 

20 

120 

23J 

40 

95 

20 

100 

3J 

80 

130 

12J 

60 

85 

20 

90 

24 

65 

120 

20 

130 

3* 

80 

140 

13 

90 

90 

20 

130 

25 

60 

100 

20 

150 

3| 

40 

150 

13* 

60 

90 

20 

90 

25* 

30 

85 

20 

90 

4 

40 

80 

80 

100 

20 

110 

26 

70 

130 

20 

140 

40 

85 

14 

90 

90 

20 

140 

27 

40 

90 

20 

120 

40 

90 

14J 

60 

90 

20 

95 

27* 

40 

100 

20 

110 

40 

95 

15 

90 

90 

20 

150 

28 

75 

140 

20 

150 

5 

40 

100 

16 

60 

80 

20 

120 

28* 

30 

90 

20 

95 

6* 

40 

110 

16J 

80 

100 

20 

130 

30 

70 

140 

20 

150 

6 

40 

120 

16* 

80 

110 

20 

120 

32 

30 

80 

20 

120 

S* 

40 

130 

17 

45 

85 

20 

90 

33 

40 

110 

20 

120 

40 

140 

17* 

80 

100 

20 

140 

34 

30 

85 

20 

120 

7* 

40 

150 

18 

40 

60 

20 

120 

35 

60 

140 

20 

150 

8 

30 

210 

18J 

80 

100 

20 

150 

36 

30 

190 

20 

120 

WHEELS    AND    GUDGEONS. 


157 


Example  1.  — Required  the  number  of  teeth  that  a  wheel  of  16 
inches  diameter  will  contain  of  a  10  pitch. 

16  X  1°=  16°  teeth,  and  the  circular  pitch  =  -314  inch. 
Example  2.  —  What  must  be  the  diameter  of  a  wheel  for  a  9 
pitch  of  126  teeth  ? 

126  -~  9  =  14  inches  diameter,  circular  pitch  -349  inch. 
NOTE.  —  The  pitch  is  reckoned  on  the  diameter  of  the  wheel 
instead  of  the  circumference,  and  designated  wheels  of  8  pitch,  12 
pitch,  etc. 


STRENGTH  OF  THE  TEETH  OF  CAST  IRON  WHEELS  AT  A  GIVEN 
VELOCITY. 


Pitch 
of  teeth 
in  inches. 

Thickness 
of  teeth 
in  inches. 

Breadth 
of  teeth 
in  inches. 

Strength  of  teeth  in  horse-power  at 

3  feet  per 
second. 

4  feet  per 
second. 

6  feet  per 
second. 

8  feet  per 
second. 

3-99 

1-9 

7-6 

20-57 

27-43 

41-14 

54-85 

8-78 

1-8 

7-2 

17-49 

23-32 

34-98 

46-64 

367 

1-7 

6-8 

14-73 

19-65 

29-46 

39-28 

3-36 

1-6 

6-4 

12-28 

16-38 

24-56 

82-74 

815 

1-5 

6- 

10-12 

13-50 

20-24 

26-98 

2-94 

1-4 

6-6 

8-22 

10-97 

16-44 

21-92 

2-78 

1-8 

6-2 

6-58 

8-78 

13  16 

17-54 

2-52 

1-2 

4-8 

6-18 

691 

10-36 

13-81 

2-31 

1-1 

4-4 

399 

5-32 

7-98 

10-64 

2-1 

1-0 

4- 

8-00 

4-00 

6-00 

8-00 

1-89 

•9 

8-6 

2-18 

2-91 

4-36 

6-81 

1-68 

•8 

8-2 

1-53 

2-04 

•06 

8-08 

1-47 

•7 

2-8 

1-027 

1-37 

2-04 

272 

1.26 

•6 

2-4 

•64 

•86 

1-38 

1-84 

1-05 

•6 

2- 

•375 

•60 

•75 

1-00 

WHEELS  AND  GUDGEONS. 

To  find  size  of  Teeth  necessary  to  Transmit  a  given 
Horse  Power.     (Tredgold.) 


Horse  power  X  240 


Diameter  of  wheel,  ft.  X  Revs,  per  min. 

/     Strength  Strength 

\ 


=  Strength  of  tooth. 


Strength 
readth!  ins. 


(Pitch. 


•  =  B"adth' 


The  above  rule  will  be  found  very  suitable  for  a  speed  of  cir- 
cumference of  about  240  feet  per  minute.  For  speeds  above,  add 
to  240  half  the  difference ;  for  speeds  below,  deduct  half  the  dif- 


158  WHEELS    AND    GUDGEONS. 

ference  between  240  and  the  actual  speed,  the  result  being  a  suit- 
able multiplier. 

For  instance :  at  300  feet  per  minute,  60  being  the  difference, 
240  -f  30  =  270  multiplier. 

At  160  feet  per  minute,  80  being  the  difference,  240  —  40  =  200 
multiplier. 

The  reason  being  that,  with  higher  speeds,  the  friction,  wear, 
and  liability  to  shocks  is  increased,  at  lower  speeds  decreased, 
and  the  teeth  may  advantageously  be  proportioned  accordingly. 

To  find  the  Horse  Power  that  any  Wheel  will  Transmit. 
(Pitch,  ins.)*  X  Breadth,  ins.  X  Diameter,  ft.  X  Revs,  per  minute 

Appropriate  No.  according  to  speed,  as  above 
=  Horse  Power. 


To  find  the  Multiplying  Number  for  any  Wheel. 

(Pitch,  ins.)*  X  Breadth,  ins.  X  Diameter,  ft.  X  Rev«.  per  minute 

Horse  Power 
=  Multiplying  No.  as  above. 


To   find   the   Size  of  Teeth  to  carry  a  given   Load  in 
Founds. 

Load,  Ibs.  •—  1120  =  Breaking  strength  of  teeth. 

Load,  Ibs.  -f-  280  =  Strength  for  very  low  speeds,  and  for  steady 

work  ;  being  4  times  the  breaking  strength. 
Load,  Ibs.  -7-  140  =  Strength  for  ordinary  purposes  of  machinery  ; 

being  8  times  the  breaking  strength. 
Load,  Ibs.  •—  100  =  Strength  for  high  speeds  and  irregular  work  ; 

or  when  the  teeth  are  exposed  to  shocks. 

As  before, 


WATER. 


159 


WATER. 

To  find  the  Quantity  of  Water  that  will  be  Discharged 
through  an  Orifice  or  Pipe  in  the  Side  or  Bottom  of  a 
Vessel. 

Are.  of  .rise.,  „.  in.  X  {  N°' 

=  Cubic  feet  discharged  per  minute. 


Height  of 

Hui:  .       .'   .ii- 
Urifiee. 

Multiplier. 

Height  at 

•vfc  .  i  ..  M 

OriOoe. 

Multiplier. 

•32L&. 

Orlflot. 

Multiplier. 

FeM. 

Peek 

Feet. 

1 

2-25 

18 

9-5 

40 

142 

2 

8-2 

20 

10- 

46 

16-1 

4 

45 

22 

10-6 

60 

16- 

6 

5-44 

24 

11- 

60 

17-4 

8 

6-4 

26 

11-5 

70 

18-8 

10 

7-1 

28 

12- 

80 

201 

12 

7-8 

80 

128 

90 

21-8 

14 

8-4 

82 

12-7 

100 

22-6 

16 

9- 

85 

18-8 

To  find  the  Size  of  Hole  necessary  to  Discharge  a  given 
Quantity  of  Water  under  a  given  Head. 


Cubic  feet  water  discharged 
No.  corresponding  to  height,  as  per  table 


=  Area  of  orifice,  sq.  in. 


To   find   the    Height    necessary   to  Discharge  a  given 
Quantity  through  a  given  Orifice. 


Cubic  feet  water  discharged 
Area  orifice,  sq.  inches 


=  No.  corresp.  to  height,  as  per  table. 


The  Velocity  of  Water  issuing  from  an  Orifice  in  the 
Side  or  Bottom  of  a  Vessel  being  ascertained  to  be 
as  follows: 


,/Height  ft.  surface  above  orifice  X  6-4  =  {  Velo£j  ^^nd"'  * 
j/Height  ft.  X  Area  orifice,  ft,  X  324  =  | 


_  /  Cubic  feet  discharged 

per  minute. 

eight  ft.  X  Area  orifice,  ins.  X  2-2  =  Do-  D°- 

11 


160  GAUGING    OF    CASKS. 

It  may  be  observed  that  the  above  rules  represent  the  netual 
quantities  that  will  be  delivered  through  a  hole  cut  in  the  plate : 
if  a  short  pipe  be  attached,  the  quantity  will  be  increased,  the 
greatest  delivery  with  a  straight  pipe  being  attained  with  a  length 
equal  to  4  diameters,  and  being  £  more  than  the  delivery  through 
the  plain  hole;  the  quantity  gradually  decreasing  as  the  length 
of  pipe  is  increased,  till,  with  a  length  equal  to  GO  diameters,  the 
discharge  again  equals  the  discharge  through  the  plain  orifice. 
If  a  taper  pipe  be  attached,  the  delivery  will  be  still  greater, 
being  1£  times  the  delivery  through  the  plain  orifice;  and  it  is 
probable  that  if  a  pipe  with  curved  decreasing  taper  were  to  be 
tried,  the  delivery  through  it  would  be  equal  to  the  theoretical 
discharge,  which  is  about  1.65  the  actual  discharge  through  a 
plain  hole. 

To  find  the  Quantity  of  Water  that  will  run  through 
any  Orifice,  the  top  of  which  is  level  with  the  Surface 
of  Water  as  over  a  Sluice  or  Dam. 

/Height,  ft.  from  water  surface  to  •>        Area  of  water  •» 
\/      bottom  of  orifice  or  top  of  dam  |  X  passage.sq.ft.  |  /* 

=  Cubic  feet  discharged  per  minute. 
Or, 

Two-thirds  area  of  water  passage,  sq.  ins.  X  No.  corresponding 
to  height  as  per  table  =  Cubic  feet  discharged  per  minute. 


To  find  the  time  in  -which  a  Vessel  will   empty  itself 
through  a  given  Orifice. 


y  Height,  feet  surface  above  orifice  X  Area  water  surface,  sq.  ins. 

Area  orifice,  square  inch  X  3'7 
=  Time  required,  seconds. 

The  above  rules  are  founded  on  Bank's  experiments. 


GAUGING  OF  CASKS. 

In  taking  the  dimensions  of  a  Cask,  it  must  be  carefully  ob- 
served: 1st,  That  the  bung-hole  be  in  the  middle  of  the  cask;  2d, 
That  the  bung-stave,  and  the  stave  opposite  to  the  bung-hole,  are 
both  regular  and  even  within ;  3d.  That  the  heads  of  the  Cask  nre 
equal,  and  truly  circular;  if  so,  the  distance  between  the  inside 
of  the  chime  to  the  outside  of  the  opposite  stave  will  be  the  head 
diameter  within  the  cask,  very  near. 


GAUGING    OP    CASKS.  161 

RULK.  —  Take,  in  inches,  the  inside  diatneters  of  a  cask  at  the 
head  and  the  bung,  and  also  the  length  ;  subtract  the  head-diam- 
eter  from  the  bung-diameter,  and  note  the  difference. 

If  the  measure  of  the  Cask  is  taken  outside,  with  callipers,  from 
head  to  head,  then  a  deduction  must  be  made  of  from  1  to  2  inches 
for  the  thickness  of  the  heads,  according  to  (he  size  of  the  Cask. 

1.  If  the  staves  of  the  Cask,  between  the  bung  and  the  head,  are  con- 
siderably curved,    (the  shape   of  a  pipe,)  multiply  the  difference 
between  the  bung  and  head  by  -7. 

2.  If  the  staves  be  of  a  medium  curve,  (the  shape  of  a  molasses 
hogshead,)  multiply  the  difference  by  -66. 

3.  If  the  staves  curve  very  little,  (less  than  a  molasses  hogshead,) 
multiply  the  difference  by  -6. 

4.  If  the  staves  are  nearly  straight,  (almost  a  cylinder,)  multiply 
the  difference  by  -55. 

5.  Add  the  product,  in  each  case,  to  the  head-diameter;  the 
sum  will  be  a  mean  diameter,  and  thus  the  Cask  is  reduced  to  a 
cylinder. 

6.  Multiply  the  mean  diameter  by  itself,  and  then  by  the  length, 
and  multiply,  if  for  Wine  gallons,  by  -0034.     The  difference  of 
dividing  by  294,  (the  usual  method,)  and  multiplying  by  -0034, 
(the  most  expeditious  method,)  is  less  than  500ths  of  a  gallon  in 
100  gallons. 

Example.  —  Supposing  the  head-diameter  of  a  Cask  to  be  24 
inches,  the  bung-diameter  32  inches,  and  the  length  of  Cask  40 
inches,  what  is  the  contents  in  Wine  gallons  ? 

First  variety. 

Bung-Diameter,      82  Brought  up,    876-16 

Head-Diameter,      24  Length,  40 

Difference,  8  35046-40 

Multiplier,  -7  -0034 


6-6  14018560 

Head-Diam.,        24  10513920 

29-6  119-157760 
Multiply  by          29-6 


[Carry  up]    Square,  876-16  Ant.     119  galls.  1  pint. 

To  obtain  the  contents  of  a  similar  Cask  in  Ale  gallons,  multiply 
35046-40  by  -002786,  and  we  get  97-6042,  (or  97  gallons  6  pints.) 

Gauging   of  Casks  in   Imperial   (British)   Gallons,   and 
also  in  United  States  Gallons. 

Having  ascertained  the  variety  of  the  Cask,  and  its  interior 
dimensions,  the  following  Table  will  facilitate  the  calculation  of 
its  capacity. 


162 


GAUGING    OF    CASKS. 


TABLE  OF  THE  CAPACITIES  OF  CASKS,  WHOSE  BUNG  DIAM- 
ETEKS  AND  LENGTHS  AEE  1  OR  UNITY. 


H.|  1st  Var. 

2d  Var.  1  3(J  Var.  j  4th  Var. 

H. 

1st  Var. 

2.1  Var. 

3<3  Var. 

4th  Var. 

•50-0021244 

•0020300  -0017704  -0.il«---23 

•76  0024337 

•0024120  -0022343  -00.2071 

•51-0021340 

O020483 

O017847  O018718 

•77 

0024482 

•0022560  -0022310 

•52  -00211:17 

0020681 

O01T90B  O018006 

•78 

•0024445 

•53  -002153t; 

•0020702 

O018141  O0170B8 

•79 

•0024610 

•0023002   (K  12-27  '.4 

•64 
•65 

00216:17 
0021740 

O090888 

•0020075 

00  ls-2'.»3'  -0017294 
•001S447  -0017491 

•80 
•81 

0024  127 

•0025079 

•0024776  -00215227  0023038 
•0024-J42  00234661-0023286 

•66 

0021845 

0021114 

•ooisix>4  -oour.'.io 

•82 

•0025110 

•0023686;  -0023533 

•57 
«8 

0021951 
0022080 

•iH)2i::'J4 

•0018764  -0017v.il 
•0018927  -001*094 

•83 
•84 

0096388 

•0025046 

002.V279  '( 
•0025449  -di.2  11;.'. 

•59 

0!  1-2-2  17.1 

0021588 

•0019093 

0018300 

•85 

•0025706   0025021 

H0242MI 

•60 

00222s:: 

•0021670 

O010981 

•001S506 

•86 

•0025867 

O02670; 

•(N>2J':iS  -0024545 

•61 

0022807 

0021828 

•0019433 

O018716 

•S7 

O098080 

O02690? 

•00248S3  -0024803 

•62 

0022513 

O021088 

0019007 

•0018925 

•88 

0091  L08 

•0026141 

0026181  O096088 

•63 

0029831 

0022114 

•0019784 

•o-i  '.H:;- 

•89 

0096188 

O028817 

•64 

0022751 

•002J2U2 

0010084 

0010863 

•80 

O096639 

•00264y4 

• 

•65 

(K)22873 

•0022410 

0)20147 

O0106M 

•Hi 

•0026703  -0026672 

•cv, 

0022907 

•0022980 

O090833 

OOIOTM 

•92 

•oo2t>7.- 

•0026150  (Ki-2-.rj) 

•07 

•0023122 

•0022711 

•0020521 

0090008 

•93 

O027060  0027082 

O028412 

0028260 

0022883 

0020712 

•0020228 

•94 

•0027227 

•UI27213 

0898077 

•002<T,tO 

•69 

ui  12:  ;:::'-< 

•0023016 

O090808 

O020463 

•96 

•0027405 

OO278W 

OQ9804C 

•70 

•0023510 

•0023170 

•0021103 

•mi2  »;:•< 

.;., 

0027686 

O02767( 

•0027215 

•71 

•oi>23<;i:i 

0023898 

•0021302 

•0020905 

•97 

O0277M 

•0027764 

DQ2748S 

•72 

•00  2377  s 

0028489 

O09U06 

0021186 

•98 

ii  27062 

O0279* 

0027788 

•0027763 

002:5915 

•0023640 

•0021710 

O0218M 

•99 

O02818B 

0028187 

00880M 

•74 

•0024o:,4 

0028700 

O0210U 

O021690 

1-00 

•0028326 

•0028326 

•0028326 

DHBfSJ 

•75 

•O0241'.i5 

0023959 

0022129 

•0021834 

Divide  the  head  by  the  bung  diameter,  and  opposite  the  quotient 
in  the  column  H,  and  under  its  proper  variety,  is  the  tabular 
number  for  unity.  Multiply  the  tabular  number  by  the  square 
of  the  bung  diameter  of  the  given  cask,  and  by  its  length,  the 
product  equals  its  capacity  in  Imperial  gallons. 

Required  the  number  of  gallons  in  a  Cask,  (1st  variety,)  24  inches 
head-diameter,  32  bung-diameter,  and  40  inches  in  length? 
82)  24-0  (-75  see  Table  for  tabular  No. 

•0024195  tabular  No.  for  unity. 
82  X  32  is      1024  square  of  bung  diam. 


96780 
48390 
24195 

2-4775680 

40  Inches  long. 


rE.  —  Multiply- 
uperial  gallons  by 
id  two-tenths  (1-2) 


99-1027200  Imperial  gallons 
1-2 


NOTE. 
ing  Im 
e-He  an 

will  convert  them  into 
U.S.  gallons;  and  U.S. 
gallons  multiplied  by 
•833  equal  Imperial 
gallons. 


1982054400 
991027200 

118-92326400  United  States  gallons. 


ULLAGE    OF    CASKS.  163 

To  Ullage,  or  find  the   Contents  in   Gallons  of  a  Cask 
partly  filled. 

To  find  the  contents  of  the  occupied  part  of  a  lying  cask  in  gallons. 

RULE. —  Divide  the  depth  of  the  liquid,  or  wet  inches,  by  the 
bmi£-<liameter,  and  if  the  quotient  is  under  -5,  deduct  from  the 
quotient  one-fourth  of  what  it  is  less  than  •'>.  and  multiply  the  re- 
mainder by  the  whole  capacity  of  the  cask ;  this  product  will  be 
the  number  of  gallons  in  the  cask.  But  if  the  quotient  exceeds  -6, 
add  one-fourth  of  that  excess  to  the  quotient,  and  multiply  the  sum 
by  the  whole  capacity  of  the  cask  ;  this  product  will  be  the  num- 
ber of  gallons. 

Example  1.  —  Suppose  the  bung-diameter  of  a  cask,  on  its  bilge, 
is  32  inches,  and  the  whole  contents  of  the  cask   118-80  U.   S. 
standard  gallons ;  required  the  ullage  of  15  wet  inches. 
32)  15.00 (-46875    -5  —  -46875  =  -03125  —  4  =  -0078125     -46876  — 
•0078125  =  -4609376X118-80  =  64-759376  U.  S.  gallons. 

Example  2. —  Required  the  ullage  of  17  wet  inches  in  a  cask  of 
the  above  capacity. 
32)17-00(-53125—  -6=  -03126 -i-  4= -0078125+ -53125=-6390626 

X  11880  =  64-040625  U.  S.  gallons. 
PROOF.—  64-040625  -f  64-769875  =  1 1 8-80  gallont. 

To  find  the  ullage  of  a  filled  part  of  a  standing  Cask,  in  gallons. 

Ki  I.K. —  Divide  the  depth  of  the  liquid,  or  wet  inches,  by  the 
length  of  the  cask;  then,  if  the  quotient  is  less  than  -5,  deduct 
from  the  quotient  one-tenth  of  what  it  is  less  than  -5,  and  multiply 
the  remainder  by  the  whole  capacity  of  the  cask;  this  product  will 
be  the  number  of  gallons.  But  if  the  quotient  exceeds  -5,  add  one- 
tenth  of  that  excess  to  the  quotient,  and  multiply  the  sum  by  the 
whole  capacity  of  the  cask;  this  product  will  be  the  ullage,  or  con- 
tents in  U.  S.  standard  gallons. 

Example. —  Suppose  a  cask,  40  inches  in  length,  and  the  capac- 
ity 118-80  gallons,  as  above:  required  the  ullage  of  21  wet  inches. 
40)  21-000  (-526—  .5  =  -0264- 10  =  -0025  +  -526  =  -5275  XH8-80 
=  62-667  U.  S.  gallons. 

NOTE. — Formerly  the  British  Wine  and  Ale  gallon  measures  were 
similar  to  those  now  used  in  the  United  States  and  British  Colonies. 

The  following  Tables  exhibit  the  comparative  value  between  the 
United  States  and  the  present  British  measures. 


tJ.  S.  measure  for  Britlih  (Im.)  meunre. 

wine,  spirits,  etc.  galls,  qu.  pu.  gills. 

42  K'alls.=  1  tierce,=  34  3  1  3 

63  "  =  1  hogsh.=  52  1  1  3 

126  "  =lpipe,  =  104  3  1  8 

252  "  =1  tun,  =  209  3  1  2 


U.  8.  mcs.nr*  for  British  am.)  measure, 

ale  and  beer.  galls,  qu.  pu.  gills. 

9  galls.  =  1  firkin,  =     9011 

36    "      ^  1  barrel,  =    36     2     0     3 

54     "      =1  hogsh.  =    64     3     0     1 

108    "      =lbutt,  =109     3     1     3 


To  convert  Imperial  gallons  into  United  States  Wine  gallons, 
multiply  the  imperial  by  1-2.  To  convert  U.  S.  gallons  into  Impe- 
rial, multiply  the  U.  States  Wine  gallons  by  -833. 

51  U.  S.  Ale  gallons  equal  60  Imperial  gallons,  therefore  to 
convert  one  into  other  add  or  deduct  ^th. 


164  ALLOYS    AND    COMPOSITIONS. 

ALLOYS  AND  COMPOSITIONS. 

ALLOY  is  the  proportion  of  a  baser  metal  mixed  with  a  fiuer  or 
purer,  as  when  copper  is  mixed  with  gold,  £c. 

AMALGAM  is  a  compound  of  mercury  and  a  metal  —  a  soft  alloy. 

All  compositions  of  copper  contract  in  the  admixture,  and  all 
amalgams  expand. 

In  the  manufacture  of  alloys  and  compositions,  the  more  infusible 
metals  should  be  melted  first. 

In  compositions  of  brass,  as  the  proportion  of  zinc  is  increased, 
BO  is  the  malleability  decreased. 

The  tenacity  of  brass  is  impaired  by  the  addition  of  lead  or  tin. 

Steel  alloyed  with  T^th  part  of  platinum,  or  silver,  is  rendered 
harder,  more  malleable,  and  better  adapted  for  cutting  instruments. 

Any  alloy  which  is  slowly  heated  and  gradually  cooled  (annealed, 
that  is),  is  softer  than  when  the  compound  is  suddenly  chilled; 
hence  the  hardness  of  chill-cast  iron. 

In  moulding,  no  casting  of  any  kind  should  be  removed  until  it  is 
cooled  down  to  within  a  few  degrees  of  the  atmosphere;  and  in  open 
sand  castings,  a  thick  covering  of  sand  should  be  applied  to  retain 
the  heat. 

Neglect  of  this  caution  is  certain  to  weaken  the  piece,  and  fre- 
quently is  the  cause  of  accidents. 


ALLOYS    AND    COMPOSITIONS. 


165 


ALLOYS  AND  COMPOSITIONS. 


I 

N 

„ 

I 

S 

Antimony 

Bismuth. 

1 

j| 

1 

Arsenic.  I 

Argentan  

,  . 

24 

"I 

...Z 

Argentiferous.  
Babbitt's  metal*  
Brass,  common  

••           ••    •    'hard'.'." 
"     Mathematical 
Instruments. 
'     pinchbeck  
"     red  tombac  
"     rolled-  
'     tutenag  
'     very  tenacious.. 
1     wheels,  valves... 
"     white  
"     wire  

"',- 
-;.  : 

n. 

7,'.. 

.:.• 

74J 

:,> 
-v.i 
'.«'. 

2.5 

2.5 
89. 
10.5 

u 

••_-v, 





— 

u 

52 
25. 
6.4 

20." 
11.2 

3L 
2.8 

14.8 

7.8 

.—. 

—  . 

3.4 

IS 

8.3 
10. 

....'.'. 

= 

SS* 

10 



— 



...... 



-~ 

"     yellow,  nne  
Britannia  metal 

n. 

»4. 

25 

•-, 

When  fused,  add... 

-•- 

18" 



s 

-'.->. 

...» 

"       red  
M       yellow  
"       Cyrn  baN 

-••.. 

"7.".' 

-.,! 

11  1 
312 

U 

16 
20 

— 



—^ 

"    gun  metul.large 
"          "          small 
"       Medals  
Statuary  
Chinese  Kllver  
Chinese  while  copper- 
Church  bells_  „  

".'. 

••-.. 

91.4 

KJ 

i  .: 

n. 

•  -i 

10. 
7. 
7. 

...... 



— 





— 

JJ 

EE 

•~m 

55 
193 
23.4 
5.6 

1.4 

"2.6 
10.1 
31 

18L 

u..; 

1.7 

— 

»-« 

^ 

i.; 

~~ 





'.".'.". 

T.6 

i 

Clock  bells  

-•• 

Cocks,    Musical  bells.. 
German  sUver  

**           **     fine  

-7/. 

88  . 
;  1.4 
i  US 

v;  ,; 

12.5 

83.4 

2.J.4 
24. 

...  . 

i  i: 

•Mi 

18  4 

-1. 

"  "i 

77 

23 

Lathe  bushes  

V.I 

20. 

— 







Machinery  bearings.  . 
'•              "      hard 
Metal  that  expands  In 
cooling  

77.-1 

125 

7. 

15.6 



7-,. 

ma 

.s:; 

Muntz  metal  
Pewter,  best.  „  

""• 

40. 

86 

\  t 

IS. 

80 

M 

Printing  characters  ... 

0. 

-M. 

— 

~~ 



'.'.'."'. 

Sheathing  metal  

,' 

45. 

22. 

-.". 

:    .      .' 

21. 

29. 
33  4 

Temp,  if  
Type  ami   stereotype 
plates.  
White  im-tal  
"          "     hard-  
Oreide.,  ..  

7.4 
BJ 

-... 

"7.4 
12.3 

66.6 

28.*4 
1.4 
}Ma 
^sal 

^nr- 
-am 

« 

-„!'.•! 

uu 







:::: 



lia  4.4  Crm  of  tartar  6.5 
moninn2.5  Quick-lime  ...-1.33 

•See  page  16  i  for  directions.    tFor  adding  small  quantities  of  copper. 


166    RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 


RARE    Am)    VALUABLE    RECEIPTS    AND 
TABLES  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 


Yellow  Brass,  for  Turning. — (Common  article.) — Copper,  20 
Ibs. ;  zinc,  10  Ibs. ;  lead  from  1  to  5  oz.  Put  in  the  lead  last  before 
pouring  off. 

Red  Brass,  for  Turning.— Copper,  24 Ibs.;  zinc,  5 Ibs.,  lead,  8  oz. 
Put  in  the  lead  last  before  pouring  off. 

Red  Brass,  free,  for  Turning.— Copper,  160  Ibs.;  zinc,  50  Ibs.; 
lead,  10  Ibs. ;  antimony,  44  oz. 

Another  Brass,  for  Turning.— Copper,  32  Ibs.;  zinc,  10  Ibs: 
lead,  1  Ib. 

Best  Red  Brass,  for  Fine  Castings.— Copper,  24  Ibs.;  zinc,  5 
Ibs. ;  bismuth,  1  oz.  Put  in  the  bismuth  last  before  pouring  off. 

Bronze  Metal. — Copper,  7  Ibs. ;  zinc,  3  Ibs. ;  tin,  2  Ibs. 
Bronze  Metal.— Copper,  1  Ib.;  zinc,  12  Ibs.;  tin,  8  Ibs. 

Bell  Metal,  for  Large  Bells.— Copper,  100  Ibs.;  tin,  from  20  to 
25  Ibs. 

Bell  Metal,  for  Small  Bells.— Copper,  3  Ibs.;  tin,  1  Ib. 

Cock  Metal.— Copper,  20  Ibs.;  lead,  8  Ibs.;  litharge,  1  oz.;  anti- 
mony, 3  oz. 

Hardening  for  Britannia.— (To  be  mixed  separately  from  the 
other  ingredients.)— Copper,  2  Ibs.;  tin,  1  Ib. 

Good  Britannia  Metal.— Tin,  150 Ibs.;  copper,  3  Ibs.;  antimony. 
10  Ibs. 

Britannia  Metal,  second  Quality.— Tin,  140  Ibs.;  copper,  3 
Ibs.;  antimony,  «i  Ibs. 

Britannia  Metal,  for  Casting.— Tin,  210  Ibs.;  copper,  4  Ibs.; 

antimony,  li>  Ibs. 

Britannia  Metal,  for  Spinning.— Tin,  100  Ibs. ;  Britannia  har- 
dening, 4  Ibs.;  antimony,  4  Ibs. 

White  Solder,  for  Raised  Britannia  Ware.— Tin,  100  Ibs.; 
copper,  3  oz.,  to  make  it  free;  and  lead,  3  oz. 


RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    167 

Britannia  Metal,  for  Registers.— Tin,  100  Ibs.;  hardening,  8 
Ibs.;  antimony,  8  Ibs. 

Best  Britannia,  for  Spouts.— Tin,  140  Ibs.;  copper  3  Ibs.;  anti- 
mony, 6  Ibs. 

Best  Britannia,  for  Spoons.— Tin,  100  Ibs.;  hardening,  5  Ibs.,- 
antimony,  10  Ibs. 

Best  Britannia,  for  Handles.— Tin,  140  Ibs. ;  copper,  2  Ibs. ;  anti- 
mony 5  Ibs. 

Best  Britannia,  for  Lamps,  Pillars  and  Spouts.— Tin,  30& 
Ibs.;  copper,  4  Ibs.;  antimony,  15  Ibs. 

Casting.— Tin,  100  Ibs. ;  hardening,  5  Ibs. ;  antimony,  5  Ibs. 

Lining  Metal,  for  Boxes  of  Railroad  Cars.— Mix  tin,  24  Ibs.; 
copper,  4  Ibs.;  antimony,  8  Ibs.  (for  a  hardening);  then  add  tin,  72 
Ibs. 

Fine  Silver  Colored  Metal.— Tin,  100  Ibs.;  antimony,  8  Ibs.; 
copper,  4  Ibs.;  bismuth,  1  Ib. 

German  Silver,  First  Quality,  for  Casting. — Copper,  50  Ibs.: 
zinc,  25  Ibs: ;  nickel,  25  Ibs. 

German  Silver,  Second  Quality,  for  Casting.— Copper,  60 
Ibs.;  zinc,  -'0  Ibs.;  nickel  (best  pulverized),  10  Ibs. 

German  Silver,  for  Rolling.— Copper,  60  Ibs.;  zinc,  20  Ibs.; 
nickel,  25  Ibs. 

German  Silver,  for  Bells  and  other  Castings. — Cop]»er,  60  Ibs.; 
zinc,  20  Ibs. ;  nickel,  20  Ibs. ;  lead,  3  Ibs. ;  iron  (that  of  tin  plate  being 
best,)  2  Ibs. 

Imitation  of  Silver.— Tin,  3  oz.;  copper,  4  Ibs. 

Pinchbeck.— Copper,  5  Ibs. ;  zinc,  1  Ib. 

Tombac. — Copper,  16  Ibs.;  tin,  1  Ib. ;  zinc,  1  Ib. 

Red  Tombac. — Copper,  10  Ibs. ;  zinc,  1  Ib. 

Hard  White  Metal.— Sheet  brass,  32  oz.;  lead,  2  oz.;  tin,  2  oz.; 
zinc,  1  oz. 

Metal  for  taking  Impressions.— Lead,  3  Ibs.;  tin,  2  Ibs.;  bis- 
muth, 5  Ibs. 

Spanish  Tutania.— Iron  or  stool,  8  oz.;  antimony,  16  oz.;  nitre, 
3  oz.  Melt  and  harden  8  oz.  tin  with  1  oz.  of  the  above  compound. 

Rivet  Metal.— Copper,  32  oz.;  tin,  2  oz.;  zinc,  1  oz. 

Rivet  Metal,  for  Hose.— Tin,  64  Ibs.;  copper,  1  Ib. 

Fusible  Alloy.— (Which  melts  in  boiling  water).— Bismuth,  8 
oz.;  tin,  3oz.;  lead,  5  oz. 

Fusible  Alloy,  for  Silvering  Glass.— Tin,  6oz.,  lead,  10  oz.; 
bismuth,  '-'I  oz.;  mercury,  a  small  quantity. 

Best  Soft  Solder  for  Cast  Britannia  Ware.—  Tin,  8  Ibs. ; 
lead,  5  Ibs. 

Yellow  Solder,  for  Brass  or  Copper.— Copper,  32  Ibs. ;  zinc, 
29  Ibs.;  tin,  1  Ib. 

Brass  Solder. — 1.  Copper,  61.25  parts;  zinc,  38.75  parts;  2.  (Yel- 
low and  easily  fusible)  copper,  45  parts;  zinc,  55  parts;  3.  (White) 
copper,  57.41  parts,  tin,  14.60  parts;  zinc,  27.99  parts. 


168    RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

Solder,  for  Copper, — Copper,  10  Ibs. ;  ziiv 
Black  Solder. — Copper,  ~2  Ibs. ;  zinc.  :;  li>s. :  tin.  '_'  07.. 
Black  Solder. — Sheet  brass,  '20  !!>•.  /.inc,  1  Ib. 

Soft  Solder.— Tin,  15  Ibs. ;  lead,  15  Ibs. 

Pewterer's  Soft  Solders.— 1.  Bismuth,  2;  lead,  4;  tin,  3.  2. 
Bismuth.  1;  lead,  1;  till,  2. 

Plumber's  Soldev.— Lead,  3  parts;  tin,  1  part. 

Solder.— Fon  LEAD,  the  solder  is  one  part  tin,  1  to  2  of  lead;  for 
TIN,  1  to  2  parts  tin  to  1  of  lead;  for  ZINC,  1  part  tin  to  1  to  L'  of  lead; 
for  PEWTER,  1  part  tin  to  1  of  lead,  and  1  to  2  parts  of  bismuth. 

The  surfaces  to  be  joined  are  made  perfectly  clean  and  smooth, 
and  then  covered  with  sal  ammoniac,  or  re>in.  or  both:  th  •  solder  is 
then  applied,  being  melted  in,  and  smoothed  over  by  the  soldering 
iron. 

Coppersmith's  Cement,  &c.— Bullock's  blood  thickened  with 
finely-powdered  lime.  Use  as  soon  as  mixed,  as  it  rapidly  Lrcts 
hard.  COPPERSMITH'S  SOLDKU. — Tin  2  parts,  lead  1  part.  \Vht-n 
the  copper  is  thick,  heat  it  by  a  naked  fire;  if  thin,  use  a  tinned  nip- 
per tool.  Use  muriate  or  chloride  of  zinc,  or  resin,  as  a  flux.  The 
same  solder  will  do  for  IRON,  CAST  IRON,  or  STEEL;  if  thick,  heat  by 
a  naked  fire,  or  immerse  in  the  solder. 

Solder  for  Gold. — Gold,  f>  dwts.;  silver,  1  dwt.;  copper,  2  dwts. 

Soft  Gold  Solder.— Gold,  4  parts;  silver,  1  part;  copper,  1 
part. 

Solder  for  Silver.— (For  the  use  of  jewellers. )— Fine  silver,  19 
dwts.;  copper,  1  dwt.,  sheet  brass,  10  dwts. 

"White  Solder,  for  Silver. — Silver,  1  oz. ;  tin,  1  oz. 

Silver  Solder,  for  Plated  Metal.— Fine  silver,  1  OT;.;  brass, 
10  dwts. 

Solders.— Fon  STEEL  JOINTS.  Silver,  19  parts;  copper,  1  part; 
brass,  2  parts;  melt  altogether. 

HARD  SOLDER. — Copper,  2  parts;  zinc,  1  part;  melt  together. 

FOR  GOLD.— 1.  Silver,  1  parts;  copper,  1  part,  with  borax.  2. 
Gold,  '-'  parts;  silver,  1  part;  copper,  1  part.  3.  Gold,  3  parts;  silver, 

3  parts;  copper,  1  part;  zinc,  %  part. 

FOR  SILVER. — Silver,  2  parts;  brass,  1  part,  with  borax;  or,  silver, 

4  parts;  brass,  3  parts;  zinc,  1-1G,  with  borax. 

FOR  BRASS. — Copper,  3  parts;  zinc,  1  part,  with  borax. 

FOR  PLATINA. — Gold,  with  borax. 

Foil  IRON. — The  best  solder  for  iron  is  good  tough  brass,  with  a 
little  borax. 

FOR  COPPER. — Brass,  6  parts;  zinc,  l  part;  tin,  1  part;  melt  all 
together,  mix  well,  and  pour  out  to  cool. 

Gold  Solders.— 1.  Copper,  24.24  parts;  silver,  27.57  parts;  gold, 
48.19  parts.  2.  ENAMEL  SOLDER — Copper,  25  parts;  silver,  7.07 
parts;  gold,  67.93  parts.  3.  Copper,  2t>.25  parts:  /.inc,  0.25  parts; 
silver,  31.28  parts;  gold,  36.25  parts.  4.  ENAMEL  SOLDER— Silver, 
19.57  parts;  gold,  80.43  parts. 


RECEIPTS  FOR   MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    169 

Solders.—  FOR  22  CARAT  GOLD—  Gold  of  22  carats,  1  dwt.  ;  silver, 
2  gr.  ;  copper,  1  gr. 

Foil  is  CARAT  GOLD  —  Gold  of  13  carats,  1  dwt.  ;  silver,  2  gr.  ;  cop- 
per, 1  gr. 

FOR  CHEAPER  GOLD—  Gold,  1  dwt.;  silver,  10  gr.;  copper,  8gr. 

STILL  —  Fine  gold,  1  dwt.;  silver,  1  dwt.;  copper,  1  dwt. 


Silver  Solders.—  1.  (hard.)  Copper,  30  parts;  zinc,  12.85  parts; 
silver,  57.15  parts.  2.  Copper,  23.  33  parts;  zinc,  10.00  parts;  silver, 
66.67  parts.  3,  Copper,  26.66  parts;  zinc,  10.00  parts;  silver,  63.34 
parts.  4.  (.toft.)  Copper,  14.75  parts;  zinc,  8.20  parts;  silver,  77.05 
parts.  5.  Copper,  22.34  parts;  zinc,  10.48  parts;  silver,  67.18  parts. 
6.  Tin,  63.00  parts;  lead,  37  parts. 

Colored  Gold.  —  1.  FTTLT,  RED  GOLD.  —  Gold,  5  dwt.;  copper,  5 
dwt.  2.  RED  GOLD.—  Gold,  10  dwt.;  silver,  1  dwt.;  copper,  4  dwt. 
3.  GREEN  GOLD.—  Gold,  5  dwt.  ;  silver,  21  gr.  4.  GRAY  GOLD.—  Gold, 
3  dwt.  15  gr.;  silver,  1  dwt.  9  gr.  5.  BLUE  GOLD.  —  Gold,  5  dwt.; 
steel  filings,  5  dwt.  6.  ANTIQUE  GOLD,  GREENISH-YELLOW.  —  Gold, 
18  dwt.  9  gr.  ;  silver,  21  gr.  ;  copper,  18  gr.  These  all  require  to  be 
submitted  to  the  process  of  wet-coloring.  7.  FACTITIOUS  GOLD, 
VERY  BRIGHT.—  Copper,  16  parts;  platina,  7  parts;  zinc,  1  part;  fused 
together. 

Alloys  for  Gold.  —  1.  RED  GOLD.  —  Copper,  66.67  parts;  gold 
33.33  parts.  2.  YELLOW  GOLD.  —  Copper,  12.50  parts;  silver,  37.50 
parts;  gold,  50  parts.  3  GREEN  GOLD.—  Silver,  25  parts;  gold,  75 
parts.  4.  YELIX>W  GOLD.—  Silver,  66.67  parts;  gold,  33.33,  parts; 
5.  GRAY  GOLD.—  Silver,  5.89  parts;  gold,  88.23  parts;  iron,  5.89 
parts.  6.  DENTISTS'  GOLD.  —  Silver,  8.34  parts;  platinum,  66.67 
parts;  gold,  24.29  parts.  7.  ENGLISH  GOLD  COIN.  —  Copper,  8.34 
parts;  gold,  91.66  parts.  8.  AMERICAN  GOLD  COIN.—  Copper,  10 
parts;  gold,  90  parts.  French  gold  coin  same  as  American. 

Alloys  for  Silver  Coin  and  Plate.—  1.  ENGLISH  STANDARD. 
—Copper,  7.50  parts;  silver,  92.50  parts.  2.  AMERICAN  STANDARD. 
—  Copper,  10  parts;  silver,  90  parts.  French  the  same. 

Gilding  Metal  for  common  jewelry  is  made  by  mixing  4  parts 
copper  with  one  of  calamine  brass.  Sometimes  1  Ib.  copper  with  6 
oz.  of  brass. 

Jeweller's  Gold  Compositions,  Common  Gold.  —  Silver,  1 
part;  Spanish  copper,  16  parts;  gold,  2  parts;  mix.  RING  GOLD.  — 
Spanish  copper,  6  parts;  silver,  3  parts;  gold,  5  parts;  mix.  MAN- 
HEIM  GOLD  —Copper,  3  parts;  zinc,  1  part;  melt,  and  stir  well. 
MOSAIC  GOLD.  —  Copper  and  zinc,  equal  parts;  melt  at  the  lowest 
temperature  that  will  fuse  the  former,  then  mix  by  stirring,  and  add 
6  per  cent,  more  zinc.  PARKER'S  MOSAIC  GOLD.  —  Copper,  100  parts; 
zinc  54  parts;  mix.  Fou  COMMON  JEWELRY.—  Copper,  3  parts;  1  of 
old  brass,  and  4  oz.  of  tin  to  every  pound  of  copper. 

Factitious  Gold.—  Copper,  16  parts;  platinum,  7  parts;  zinc,  1 
part;  fused  together.  This  alloy  resembles  gold  of  16  carats  tine, 
or  %,  and  will  resist  the  action  of  nitric  acid,  unless  very  concen- 
trated and  boiling. 


170    RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

Harmstadt's  True  Imitation  of  Gold  is  stated  not  only  to 
resemble  gold  in  color,  but  also  in  specific  gravity  and  ductility. 
Platinum,  It!  parts;  copper,  7  parts;  zinc,  1  part;  put  in  a  cnicible, 
cover  with  charcoal  powder,  and  uiult  into  a  mass. 

Do.  of  Silver.— Copper,  \4  oz.;  brass,  2  oz.;  pure  silver,  3  oz.; 
bismuth,  -  <>/..;  saltpetre,  L'  <>/..;  connnon  salt,  1  oz.;  arsenic,  1  oz.; 
potash,  1  oz.;  melt  in  a  crucible  with  powdered  charcoal.  This 
compound  was  used  by  a  German  chemist  for  unlawful  purposes 
to  tne  amount  of  thousands,  and  is  so  period  that  he  was  never 
discovered. 

Artificial  Gold.— This  is  a  new  metallic  alloy  which  is  now 
very  extensively  used  in  France  as  a  substitute  lor  gold.  Pure  cop- 
per, 100  parts;  zinc,  or,  preferably,  tin,  17  parts;  magn-sia,  ti  parts; 
sal-a.umoniac,  3-6  parts;  quick-lime,  %  part;  tartar  of  commerce, 
9  parts;  are  mixed  as  follows:  The  copper  is  first  melted,  and  the 
magnesia,  sal-ammoniac,  lime,  and  tartar  are  then  added,  sepa- 
rately, and  by  degrees,  in  the  form  of  powder.  The  whole  is  now 
briskly  stirred  for  about  half  an  hour,  so  as  to  mix  thoroughly:  and 
then  the  zinc  is  added  in  small  grains  by  throwing  it  on  the  surface, 
and  stirring  till  it  is  entirely  fused;  the  crucible  is  then  covered, 
and  the  fusion  maintained  for  about  thirty-five  minutes.  The  sur- 
face is  then  skimmed,  and  tin-  alloy  is  ready  for  casting. 

It  has  a  fine  grain,  is  malleable,  and  takes  a  splendid  polish.  It 
does  not  corrode  readily,  and,  for  many  purposes,  is  an  excellent 
substitute  for  gold.  When  tarnished,  its  brilliancy  can  be  restored 
by  a  little,  acidulated  wat  T.  If  tin  be  employed  instead  of  zinc, 
the  alloy  will  be  more  brilliant.  It  is  very  much  used  in  France, 
and  must  ultimately  attain  equal  popularity  here. 

New  French  Patent  Alloy  for  Silver.— Messieurs  DeKuolz 
A-  Font"nay  have  invented  the  following  alloy,  which  may  be  used 
for  almost  all  purposes  for  which  silver  is  usually  employed:  Silver, 
20  parts;  purified  nickel,  28  parts;  copper,  52  parts.  Melt  the  cop- 
per and  nickel  in  the  granular  state,  then  introduce  the  silver.  The 
flux  to  be  employed  is  charcoal  and  borax,  both  in  the  state  of  pow- 
der; and  the  ingots  obtained  are  to  be  rendered  malleable  by  an- 
nealing for  a  considerable  time  in  powdered  charcoal. 

Alloys  for  Gold.— 22  parts  gold,  2  parts  copper,  is  22  carats  fine; 
20  parts  gold,  and  4  parts  copper,  is  20  carats  fine;  18  parts  gold, 
and  6  parts  copper,  is  18  carats  fine. 

English  Standard  for  Silver. — Pure  silver,  11  oz.  2  dwts. ; 
copper,  22  dwts.  Melt. 

Silver  Imitations. — Copper  1  lb.;  tin,  ^oz.;  melt.  This  com- 
position will  roll  and  ring  very  near  to  silver.  BRITANNIA  MKTAL. 
—Copper,  1  IV).;  tin,  1  11).;  regulus  of  antim/my,  2  Ibs.:  melt  to- 
gether, with  or  without  a  little  bismuth.  GKNU'INK  GKIOIAN  Sib- 
VEK. — Iron,  2%  parts;  nickel,  31>£  parts;  zinc,  -jr.^  paru.  copper, 
40^  parts;  melt.  FINE  WHITE  GERMAN  SILVKU'— Iron,  1  part; 
nickel,  10  parts;  zinc,  10  parts;  copper,  20  parts;  melt.  PINCH- 


RECEIPTS  FOR  MEQHANICAL  PURPOSES.     171 

BECK. — Copper,  5  parts;  zinc,  1  part;  melt  the  copper,  then  add  the 
zinc.  JEWELLER'S  METAL.— Copper,  30  parts;  tin,  7  parts;  brass, 
10  parts.  Mix. 

French  Gold  Plate.— 1.  Gold,  92  parts;  copper,  8  parts.  2. 
Gold,  84  parts;  copper,  10  parts.  3.  Gold,  75  parts;  copper,  25 
parts. 

Bidery.— Copper,  48.48  parts;  tin,  6.60  parts;  zinc,  33.80  parts; 
lead,  12.12  parts. 

Best  Brass  for  Clocks.— Rose  copper,  85  parts;  zinc,  14  parts; 
lead,  1  part. 

Alloy  for  Watch  Pinion  Sockets.— Gold,  31  parts;  silver,  19 
parts;  copper,  3D  parts;  palladium,  1  part. 

To  Reduce  Hair-Springs. — Immerse  the  springs  about  2  or  3 
seconds  in  nitric  arid,  3  drops  to  one  teaspoonful  of  water.  By  this 
means  you  can  reduce  them  to  any  extent.  It  requires  very' care- 
ful manipulation,  experience,  and  good  judgment 

Albata  Metal.— Nickel,  3  to  4  parts;  copper,  20  parts;  zinc,  16 
parts.  Used  for  plated  goods. 

British  Plate.— Nickel,  5  to  6  parts;  copper,  20  parts;  zinc,  8  to 
10  parts.  Used  for  plated  goods. 

Chantry's  Hard  Alloy.— Copper,  1  lb.;  zinc,  2^  oz.;  tin,  2H 
oz.  Razors  as  hard  as  tempered  steel  have  been  made  from  this 
alloy. 

Hard  White  Metal  for  Buttons.— Brass,  1  lb.;  zinc,  2  oz.; 
tin,  1  oz. 

Birmingham  Platin.— Copper,  8  parts;  zinc,  5  parts. 

German  Silver. — 1.  Copper,  40.02  parts;  zinc,  43. 76  parts;  nickel, 
15.62  parts.  2.  Copper,  41.47  parts;  zinn,  26.0H  parts;  nickel,  32.45 

rrts.  3.  Copper,  55.55  parts;  zinc,  5.55  parts;  nickel,  38.90  parts. 
Copper,  53.40  parts:  zinc,  29.10  parts;  nickel,  17.50  parts.  5. 
(Alfentd-t  contains  a  trace  of  iron.)  Copper,  59.60  parts;  zinc,  30.30 
parts;  nickel,  10.10  parts. 

Britannia  Metal.— 1.  Copper,  0.30  parts;  tin,  89.70  parts;  zinc, 
0.30  parts;  antimony,  9.70  parts.  2.  Copper,  1.85  parts;  tin,  81  64 
parts;  antimony,  16.51  parts.  3.  Copper,  0.91  parts;  tin,  89.97 
parts;  antimony,  9.12  parts.  4.  Tin,  90.00  parts;  antimony,  10 
parts.  5.  Copper,  1.78  parts;  tin;  89.30  parts;  antimony,  7.14  parts; 
bismuth,  1.78  parts. 

Gun  Metal. — Copper,  90  parts;  tin,  10  parts. 

Melting  Poirt  of  Metals.— Iron  fuses  nt  2787°  Fahr.;  pold  at 
2016°;  silver,  187:;°;  copper,  1996O;  zinc,  773°;  antimony,  809°;  bis- 
muth, 476°  to  5070;  nickel,  630°;  tin,  442°;  lead,  334°;  mercury 
volatilizes  at  670°. 

Chinese  Gong  Metal.— Copper,  78.00  parts:  tin,  22.00. 

Alloy  for  Gun  Mountings.— Copper,  80  parts;  tin,  3;  zinc,  17. 

Bell  Metal.— 1.  Copper,  60  parts;  tin,  40  parts.  2.  Copper,  80 
parts;  tin,  20  parts.  3.  (Thomson'*)  Copper,  80  parts;  tin,  10.10 
parts;  zinc,  5.60  parts;  lead,  4.30  parts. 


172    RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL   PURPOSES. 

White  Metal  for  Table  Bells.—  Copper  2.06  parts,  tin  97.31 
parts,  bismuth  0.03  parts. 


Clock  Bell  Metal.—  Copper  75.19  parts,  tin  48.81  parts. 

Socket  Metal  for  Locomotive  Axle-trees.—  1.  Copper  sn.  03, 
tin  13.  97;  2.  (FiviK-h)  Copper  S2  parts,  tin  10  parts,  zinc  s  parts;  3. 
(8t0phenton'»)  Copper  7:»  parts,  tin  8  parts,  zinc  5  parts,  lead  8 
parts;  4.  (Belgian)  Copper  89.02  parts,  tin  2.41  parts,  zinc  7.7G  parts 
iron,  0.78  parts;  5.  (Ki.'/lixli)  Copper,  73.96  puts,  tin,  9.49  parts, 
zinc,  9.03  parts,  lead,  7.09  parts,  iron,  0.43  parts. 


.—  1.    Copper  73  parts,  zinc  27  parts;  2.  Copper  65  parts, 
zinc  35  parts;  3.   Copper  70  parts;  zinc  30  parts. 

Alloy  for  Mechanical  Instruments.—  Copper  1  lb.,  tin  1  oz. 

Malleable  Brass.  —  1.    Copper  70.10  parts,  zinc  29.90  parts-  2. 
'  Copper  60  parts,  zinc  40  parts. 


Button  Maker's  Metal.  —  1.  Copper  43  parts,  zinc  67  parts;  2. 
Copper  62.22  parts,  tin  2.78  parts,  zinc  35.00  parts. 

Metal  for  Sliding  Levers  of  Locomotives.—!.  Copper  85.25 
parts,  tin  12.75  parts,  zinc  2.00  parts;  2.  (Fknton's)  Copper  o.iO 
parts,  tin  14.50  parts,  zinc  80  parts. 

Alloy  for  Cylinders  of  Locomotives.  —  Copper  88.63  parts, 
tin  2.38  parts,  zinc  6.99  parts. 

Alloy  for  Stuffing  Boxes  of  Locomotives.—  Copper  90.06 
parts,  tin  3.56  parts,  zinc  6.38  parts. 

Amalgam  for  Mirrors.—  1.  Tin  70  parts,  mercury  30  parts;  2, 
(Fur  curved  mirrors)  tin  80  parts,  mercury  20  parts;  3.  Tin  8.33 
parts  It-ad  s.34  parts,  bismuth  s.:>:>  parts,  mercury  7.  ">  parts;  4.  (For 
spherical  mirrors)  Bismuth  80  parts,  mercury  26  parts. 

Reflector  Metal.—  1.  (Duppler's)  Zinc  20  parts,  silver  80  parts, 
2.  Copper  66.22  parts,  tin  33.11  parts,  arsenic  0.67  parts;  3.  (f'oo/i- 
er's)  Copper  57.86  parts,  tin  27.28  parts,  zinc  3.30  parts,  arsenic  1.65 
parts,  platinum  9.91  parts;  4.  Copper  <>4  parts,  tin  32.00  parts,  arse- 
nic 4.00  parts;  5.  Copper  82.  is  parts,  lead  <t.22  parts,  antimony  8.60 
parts:  ti.  (Zfttirt)  Copper  69.01  parts,  tin  30.82  parts,  zinc  2.44 
parts,  arsenic  1.83  parts. 

Metal  for  Gilt  Wares.—  1.  Copper  7«.47  parts,  tin  2.S7  parts, 
zinc  17.23  parts,  lead  1.43  parts;  L'.  Copper  64.43  parts,  tin  0.25 
parts,  zinc  32.44  parts,  lead  2.86  parts;  9.  Copper  72.43  parts,  tin 
1.87  parts,  zinc  22.75  parts,  lead  2.96  parts;  4.  Copper  70.90  parts, 
tin  2.00  parts,  zinc  24.05  parts,  lead  3.05  parts. 

Spurious  Silver  Leaf.  —  Tin  90.00  parts,  zinc  9.91  parts. 

Shot  Metal.—!.  Lead  97.07  parts,  arsenic  2.93  parts;  2.  Load 
99.60  parts,  arsenic  0.40  parts. 

Bismuth  Solder.—  Tin,  33.33  parts;  lead,  33.33  parts,  bismuth, 
33.34  parts. 

Alloy  for  Calico  Printing  Blocks.—  Tin,  50.00  parts;  lead, 
33.M;  bismuth,  16.66  parts. 


RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    173 

Amalgam  for  Electrical  Machines.—! .  Tin,  25  parts;  zinc,  26 
parts;  mercury,  50  parts;  2.  Tin,  11.11  parts;  zinc,  22.22  parts;  mer- 
cury, 6G.G7  parts. 

Type  Metal.— 1.  (Tbr  smnttatt  find  most  brittle  types)  Lead,  3; 
antimony,  1;  2.  (For  itrnall,  bird,  brittle  type*")  Lead,  4;  antimony, 
1;  3.  ( for  tyws  of  medium  si&)  Lead,  5;  antimony,  1;  4.  (Fbr  large 
types)  Lead,  6;  antimony,  1;  5.  ( Fbr  largest  and  softest  tyjtes)  Load, 
7;  antimony,  1.  In  addition  to  lead  and  antimony,  type  metal  also 
contains  4  to  8  per  cent,  of  tin,  and  sometimes  1  to  2  per  cent,  of 
copper.  Stereotype  plates  are  made  of  lead,  20  parts;  antimony,  4 
parts;  tin,  1  part. 

Brass  for  Wire.— Copper,  34  parts;  calamine,  56  parts;  mix. 

Britannia  Metal.— 1.  Tin,  82  parts;  lead,  18  parts;  brass,  5 
parts;  antimony  5  parts;  mix.  2.  Brass,  1  part;  antimony,  4  parts; 
tin,  20  parts;  mix.  3.  Plate-brass,  tin,  bismuth,  and  antimony,  of 
each  equal  parts.  Add  this  mixture  to  melted  tin  until  it  acquires 
the  proper  color  and  hardness. 

Bronze.— 1.  Copper,  83  parts;  zinc,  11  parts;  tin,  4  parts;  lead, 
2  parts;  mix.  2.  Copper,  14  parts;  melt,  and  add  zinc,  6  parts;  tin, 
4  parts;  mix. 

Ancient  Bronze.— Copper,  100  parts;  lead  and  tin,  each  7  parts; 
mix. 

Alloy  for  Bronze  Ornaments.— Copper,  82  parts;  zinc,  18  parts; 
tin,  3  parts:  mix. 

Beautiful  Red  Bronze  Powder. — Sulphate  of  copper,  100 
parts;  carbonate  of  soda,  <>0  parts;  apply  heat  until  they  unite  into 
a  mass;  then  cool,  and  add  copper-filings,  15  parts.  Well  mix,  and 
keep  them  at  &  white  heat  for  20  minutes;  then  cool,  powder,  wash 
and  dry. 

Bronzing  Fluid  for  Guns.  —  Nitric  acid,  sp.  gr.  1.2;  nitric 
ether,  alcohol,  murate  of  iron,  each  1  part;  mix,  then  add  sulphate 
of  copper,  2  parts,  dissolved  in  water,  10  parts. 

Cannon  Metal.— Take  tin,  10  parts;  copper,  90  parts;  melt. 

Statuary  Bronze. — 1.  Copper,  88  parts;  tin,  9  parts;  zinc,  2 
parts;  lead",  1  part.  2.  Copper,  82*4  parts;  tin,  5  parts;  zinc,  10}$ 
parts;  lead,  2  parts.  3.  Copper,  90  parts;  tin,  9  parts;  lead,  1  part. 

Bronze  for  Medals.— Copper,  89  parts;  tin,  8  parts;  zinc,  3 
parts. 

Bronze  for  Large  Cannon. — Copper,  90;  tin,  7. 

Bronze  for  Small  Cannon. — Copper,  93;  tin,  7. 

Alloy  for  Symbals. — Copper,  80;  tin,  20. 

Mirrors  of  Reflecting  Telescopes.— Copper,  100;  tin,  60. 

"White  Argentine.— Copper,  8;  nickel,  3;  zinc,  35.  This  beauti- 
ful composition  is  in  imitation  of  silver. 

Chinese  Silver.— Silver,  2.5;  copper,  65.24;  zinc,  19.52;  cobalt  of 
Iron,  0.12;  nickel,  13. 


174    RECEIPTS   FOR  MEC-IIANICAL   PURPOSES. 

Tutenag.— Copper,  8;  nickel,  3;  zinc,  6. 

Printing  Characters. — Load.  4;  antimony,  1.  For  stereotype 
plates,  lead,  25;  antimony,  4;  tin,  1. 

Fine  White  German  Silver.— 1.  For  Coatings.  Lead,  3  parts; 
nicki-1,  20  parts;  tine 20 parte;  copp-r,  (in  parts;  mix.  2.  for  Rolling. 
Nickel,  5  parts;  zinc,  4  parts;  copper,  12  parts;  mix. 

Imitation  Platinum. — Melt  together  8  parts  brass  and  5  of  zinc. 
This  alloy  very  closely  resembles  platinum. 

Imitation  Gold. — Platina,  8  parts;  silver,  4  parts;  copper,  12 
parts;  melt  all  together. 

Imitation  Silver.— Block-tin,  inn  parts;  antimony,  8  parts;  bis- 
muth, 1  part;  copper,  4  parts;  melt  all  together. 

Tombac,  or  Red  Brass. — Melt  together,  8  parts  of  copper  and  1 
part  of  zinc. 

Parisian  Bell  Metal.— Copper,  72  parts;  tin,  2fi^  parts;  iron, 
\%  parts;  used  for  the  bells  of  small  ornamental  clocks. 

Bell  Metal.— 1.  Copper,  25  parts;  tin,  5  parts;  mix.  2.  Copper, 
79  parts;  tin,  2G  parts;  mix.  3.  Copper,  78  parts;  tin,  '22  parts;  mix. 

Prince's  Metal. — 1.  Copper,  3  parts;  zino,  1  part.  2.  Brass,  8 
parts;  zinc,  1  part.  3.  Zinc  and  copper,  equal  parts  :  mix. 

Queen's  Metal. — 1.  Lead,  1  part;  bismuth,  1  part;  antimony,  1 
part;  tin,  9  parts;  mix.  2.  Tin,  9  parts;  bismuth,  1  part;  lead,  2 
parts;  antimony,  1  part,  mix  by  melting. 

Brass. — Copper,  3  parts;  melt,  then  add  zinc  1  part. 
Button-Maker's  Fine  Brass.— Brass,  8  parts;  zinc  5  parts. 

Button-Maker's  Common  Brass.— Button-brass,  6  parts;  tin, 
1  part;  lead,  1  part;  mix. 

Fine  Brass.— Copper,  2  parts;  zinc,  1  part;  mix. 

Organ  Pipes  consist  of  lead  alloyed  with  about  half  its  quantity 
of  tin  to  harden  it.  The  mottled  or'crystalline  appearance  so  much 
admired  shows  an  abundance  of  tin. 

Baron  Wetterstedt's  Patent  Sheathing  for  ships  consists  of 
lead,  with  from  2  to  8  per  cent,  of  antimony;  about  3  per  cent,  is 
the  usual  quantity.  The  alloy  is  rolled  into  sheets. 

Lead  Pipes  are  cast  as  hollow  cylinders,  and  drawn  out  upon 
triblets;  they  are  also  cast  of  any  length  without  drawing. 

Lead  Shot  are  rast  by  letting  the  metal  run  through  a  narrow 
slit  into  a  species  of  colander  at  the  top  of  a  lolty  tower;  the  metal 
escapes  in  drops,  which,  for  the  most  part,  assume  the  spherical 
form  before  they  reach  the  tank  of  water  into  which  they  fall  at  the 
foot  of  the  tower,  and  tin's  prevents  their  being  bruised.  They  are 
afterwards  riddled  or  sifted  for  size,  and  afterwards  churned  in  a 
barrel  with  black  lead. 

Metal  for  Anatomical  Injections. — Tin,  1fi.4l  parts;  lead,  9.27 

parts;  bismuth,  27. SI  parts;  mercury.  4*1.41  parts. 

Yellow  Dipping  Metal.— Copper,  32  Ibs.;  6  to  7  oz.  zinc  to 
every  Ib.  of  copper. 


RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL,  PURPOSES.    176 

Quick  Bright  Dipping  Acid,  for  Brass  which  has  been 
Ormolued. — Sulphuric  acid,  1  gal.;  nitric  acid,  1  gal. 

Dipping  Acid.— Sulphuric  acid,  12  Ibs. -.nitric  acid,  1  pint;  nitre, 
4  Ibs.;  soot,  2  handfuls;  brimstone,  2  oz.  Pulverize  the  brimstone, 
and  soak  it  hi  water  au  hour.  Add  the  nitric  acid  last. 

Good  Dipping  Acid  for  Cast  Brass. — Sulphuric  acid,  1  qt.; 
nitre,  1  qt.;  water,  1  qt.  A  little  muriatic  acid  may  be  added  or 
omitted. 

Dipping  Acid.— Sulphuric  acid,  4  gals.;  nitric  acid,  2  gals.: 
saturated  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron  (copperas,)  1  pint;  solution  of 
sulphate  of  copper,  1  qt. 

Ormolu  Dipping  Acid,  for  Sheet  Brass.— Sulphuric  acid,  2 
gals.;  nitric  acuf,  1  pt. ;  muriatic  acid,  1  pt.;  water,  1  pint.;  nitre,  12 
Ibs.  Put  in  tin-  muriatic  acid  last,  a  little  at  a  time,  and  stir  the 
mixture  with  a  stick. 

Ormolu  Dipping  Acid,  for  Sheet  or  Cast  Brass.— Sulphuric 
acid,  1  gal.;  sal  ammoniac,  1  oz. ;  sulphur  (in  flour,)  1  oz. ;  blue 
vitriol,  1  oz.;  saturated  solution  of  zinc  in  nitric  acid,  mixed  with  an 
equal  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid,  1  gal. 

To  Prepare  Brass  Work  for  Ormolu  Dipping. — If  the  work 


Is  oily,  boil  it  in  lye;  and  if  it  is  finished  work,  nit-dor  turned,  dip 
it  in  old  acid,  and  then  it  is  ready  to  be  ormolued;  but  if  it  is  un- 
finished, and  free  from  oil,  pickle  it  in  strong  sulphuric  acid,  dip 
in  pure  nitric  acid,  and  then  in  the  old  acid,  after  which  it  will  be 
ready  for  orinoluing. 

To  Repair  Old  Nitric  Acid  Ormolu  Dips. — If  the  work  after 
dipping  appears  coarse  and  spotted,  add  vitriol  till  it  answers  the 
purpose.  If  the  work  after  dipping  appears  too  smooth,  add  muri- 
atic acid  and  nitre  till  it  gives  the  right  appearance. 

The  other  ormolu  dips  should  be  repaired  according  to  the  re- 
ceipts, putting  in  the  proper  ingredients,  to  strengthen  them.  They 
should  not  be  allowed  to  settle,  but  should  be  stirred  often  while 
using. 

Tinning  Acid,  for  Brass  or  Zinc.— Muriatic  acid,  1  qt.;  zinc, 
6  oz.  To  a  solution  of  this,  add  water,  1  qt;  sal  ammoniac,  2  oz. 

Vinegar  Bronze,  for  Brass.— Vinegar,  10  gals.;  blue  vitriol,  3 
Ibs.;  muriatic  acid,  3  Ibs. ;  corrosive  sublimate,  4  grs.;  sal  ammoniac, 
2  Ibs.;  alum,  8  oz. 

Directions  for  making  Lacquer. — Mix  the  ingredients,  and  let 
the  vessel  containing:  them  stand  in  the  sun,  or  in  a  place  slightly 
warmed,  three  or  four  days,  shaking  it  frequently  till  the  gum  is 
dissolved,  after  which,  let  it  settle  from  twenty-four  to  forty-eight 
hours,  when  the  clear  liquor  in.iy  be  poured  off  for  use.  Pulverized 
glass  is  sometimes  used,  in  making  lacquer,  to  carry  down  the  im- 
purities. 

Lacquer,  for  Dipped  Brass.— Alcohol,  proof  specific  gravity 
not  l.-ss  than  95-lOOths,  2  gals.;  seed  lac,  1  Ib.;  gum  copal  1  oz.; 
English  saffron,  1  oz.;  aunotto,  1  oz. 
12 


gal 
lac 


176    RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

Lacquer  for  Bronzed  Brass.—  To  one  pint  of  the  above 
lacquer,  add  gamboge,  l  <>/..;  and,  after  mixing  it,  add  an  equal 
quantity  of  the  first  iaequer. 

Deep  Gold-Colored  Lacquer.  —  Best  alcohol,  40  oz.: 
Spanish  annotto,  8  gr.s.;  turmeric,  2  drs.;  shellac,  %  oz.;  red 
sanders,  12  grs.;  when  dissolved,  add  spirits  of  turpentine,  30 
drops. 

Gold-Colored  Lacquer,  for  Brass  not  Dipped.—  Alcohol,  4 

ls.;  turmeric,  3  Ibs.;  gamboge,  3  oz.;  gum  sauderach,  7  Ibs;  shel- 
Ibs.; turpentine  varnish,  1  pint. 

Gold-Colored  Lacquer,  for  Dipped  Brass.—  Alcohol,  36  oz.; 
B6ed  lac,  6  OK.;  amber,  2  oz.;  gum  gutta,  L'o/.;  red  sandal  wood, 
24  grs.;  dragon's  blood,  60  grs.;  oriental  saffron,  36  grs.;  pulverized 
glass,  4  oz. 

Gold  Lacquer,  for  Brass.  —  Seed  lac,  6  oz.;  amber  or  co- 
pal, 2oz.;  best  alcohol,  4  gals.;  pulverized  glass,  4  oz.;  dragon's 
blood,  40  grs.;  extract  of  red  sandal  wood  obtained  by  water,  30 
grains. 

Lacquer  for  Dipped  Brass.—  Alcohol,  12  gals.;  seed  lac,  8 
Ibs.;  turmeric,  1  Ib.to  a  gallon  of  the  above  mixture;  Spanish 
saffron,  4  oz.  The  saffron  is  to  be  added  for  bronze  work. 

Good  Lacquer.  —  Alcohol,  8  oz.;  gamboge,  loz.;  shellac,  3oz.; 
annotto,  1  <>/.;  solution  of  3  oz.  of  seed  lac  in  1  pint  of  alcohol; 
when  dissolved,  add  ^  oz.  Venice  turpentine,  ^  oz.  dragon's 
blood,  will  make  it  dark;  keep  it  in  a  warm  place  four  or  five  days. 

To  Bronze  Iron  Castings.  —  Cleanse  thoroughly,  and  after- 
wards immerse  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper,  when  the 
castings  will  acquire  a  coat  of  the  latter  metal.  They  must  be 
then  washed  in  water. 

Antique  Bronze  Paint.—  Sal-ammoniac,  1  oz.  ;  cream  tartar,  3 
oz.  ;  common  salt,  (5  ox.  Dissolve  in  1  pint  hot  water,  then  add 
2  oz.  of  nitrate  of  copper  dissolved  in  '.j  pint  water,  mix  well, 
and  apply  it  repeatedly  to  the  article,  in  a  damp  situation,  with  a 
brush 

To  Fill  Holes  in  Castings.—  A  mixture  of  putty  and  black 
lead  is  good,  but  a  better  method  is  a  metal  that  expands  in  cool- 
ing :  Lead,  9  parts;  antimony,  2;  and  bismuth  1.  To  be  melted 
and  poured  in. 

Pale  Lacquer  for  Tin  Plate.—  Best  alcohol,  8  oz.;  turmeric, 
4  drs.;  hay  saffron,  2  scs.;  dragon  blood,  4  MS.;  red  sanders,  1  sc.; 
shellac,  1  oz.  ;  gum  sanderach,  2  drs.  ;  gum  mastic,  2  drs.  ; 
Canada  balsam,  2  drs.;  when  dissolved,  add  spirits  of  turpentine, 
80  drops. 

Red  Lacquer,  for  Brass.  —  Alcohol,  8  gallons;  dragon's 
blood,  4  Ibs.;  Spanish  annotto,  12  pounds;  gum  sanderach,  13 
pounds;  turpentine,  1  gallon. 

Pale  Lacquer,  for  Brass.—  Alcohol,  2  gals.;  Cape  aloes,  cut 
small,  3  oz.;  pale  shellac,  1  lb.;  gamboge,  1  oz. 


RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.     177 

Bronze  Dip.— Sal-ammoniac,  1  oz. ;  salt  of  sorrel  (binoxolate  of 
potash),  >^  <)/..  dissolved  in  vinegar. 

Parisian  Bronze  Dip. — Sal-ammoniac,  %  oz. ;  common  salt,  )^ 
o/.;  spirits  of  hartshorn,  1  oz.  dissolved  in  an  English  quart  of 
vinegar.  A  good  result  will  be  obtained  by  adding  %  oz.  of  sal- 
ammoniac,  instead  of  the  spirits  of  hartshorn.  The  piece  of 
metal,  being  well  cleaned;  is  to  be  rubbed  with  one  of  these  solu- 
tions, then  dried  by  friction  with  a  flesh  brush. 

Best  Lacquer  for  Brass.— Alcohol,  4  gals.;  shellac,  2  Ibs.;  am- 
ber gum,  1  lb.;  copal,  20  oz.;  seed  lac,  3  Ibs.;  saffron,  to  color; 
pulverized  glass,  8  oz. 

Color  for  Lacquer. — Alcohol,  1  qt.;  annotto,  4  oz. 

Lacquer  for  Philosophical  Instruments.  —  Alcohol,  80  oz.; 
gum  gutta,  3oz.;  gum  sandarac,  8  oz.;  gum  elemi,  8  oz.;  dragon's 
blood,  4  oz.;  seed  lac,  4  oz.;  terra  merita,  3  oz.;  saffron,  8  grs.; 
pulverized  glass,  12  oz. 

Brown  Bronze  Dip.— Iron  scales,  1  lb.;  arsenic,  1  oz.;  muriatic 
acid,  1  lb.;  zinc  (solid),  1  oz.  Let  the  zinc  be  kept  in  only  while 
it  is  in  use. 

Green  Bronze  Dip.— Wine  vinegar,  2  qts.;  verditer  green,  2 
oz.;  sal  ammoniac,  1  oz. ;  salt,  2oz.;  alum,  }£  oz.  French  berries, 
8  oz. ;  boil  the  ingredients  together. 

Aqua-fortis  Bronze  Dip.— Nitric  acid,  8  oz.;  muriatic  acid,  1 
qt. ;  sal-ammoniac,  2  oz.;  alum,  1  oz.;  salt,  2  oz.;  wator,  2  gals. 
Add  the  salt  after  boiling  the  other  ingredients,  and  use  it  hot. 

Olive  Bronze  Dip,  for  Brass.— Nitric  acid,  3  oz.;  muriatic 
acid,  2  oz.;  add  titanium  or  palladium;  when  the  metal  is  dissolved, 
add  2  gals,  pure  soft  water  to  each  pint  of  the  solution. 

Brown  Bronze  Paint,  for  Copper  Vessels.— Tincture  of 
steel,  4  oz.;  spirits  of  nitre,  4  oz.;  essence  of  dendi,  4  oz. ;  blue 
vitriol,  t  oz.;  water,  ^  pint.  Mix  in  a  bottle;  apply  it  with  a  fine 
brush,  the  vessel  being  full  of  boiling  water;  varnish  after  the  ap- 
plication of  the  bronze. 

Bronze  for  All  Kinds  of  Metal.— Muriate  of  ammonia  (sal- 
ammoniac),  4  drs.;  oxalic  acid,  1  dr.;  vinegar,  1  pint.  Dissolve 
the  oxalic  acid  first;  let  the  work  be  clean;  put  on  the  bronze  with 
a  brush,  repeating  the  operation  as  many  times  as  may  be  neces- 
sary. 

Bronze  Paint,  for  Iron  or  Brass.— Chrome  green,  2  Ibs.; 
ivory  black,  1  oz. ;  chrome  yallow,  1  oz.;  good  Japan,  1  gill:  grind 
all  together,  and  mix  with  linseed  oil. 

For  Tinning  Brass.— Water,  2  pails  full;  cream  of  tartar,  }£ 
lb. ;  salt,  yy  pint. 

Shaved  or  Grained  Tin.— Boil  the  work  in  the  mixture,  keep- 
ing it  in  motion  during  the  time  of  boiling. 

Silvering  by  Heat. — Dissolve  1  oz.  of  silver  in  nitric  acid;  add 
a  small  quantity  of  salt;  then  wash  it,  and  add  sal  ammoniac,  or  6 
oz.  of  salt  and  white  vitriol;  also,  %  oz.  of  corrosive  sublimate; 


178    RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

rub  them  together  till  they  form  a  paste;  rub  the  piece  which  is  to 
be  silvered  with  the  paste;  heat  it  till  the  silver  runs,  after  which 
dip  it  in  a  weak  vitriol  pickle  to  clean  it. 

Mixture  for  Silvering.— Dissolve  2  oz.  of  silver  with  3  grs.  of 
corrosive  sublimate;  add  tartaric  acid,  4  Ibs.;  salt,  8  qts. 

Separate  Silver  from  Copper.—  Mix  Sulphuric  acid,  1  part; 
nitric  ac-id,  1  part;  water,  1  part;  boil  the  metal  in  the  mixture  till 
it  is  dissolved,  and  throw  in  a  little  salt  to  cause  the  silver  to 
subside. 

Chinese  White  Copper.— Copper,  40.4;  nickel,  31.6;  zinc,  25.4; 
and  iron,  -'.6  parts. 
Bath  Metal.— Brass,  32;  and  zinc,  9  parts. 

Speculum  Metal.— Copper,  6;  tin,  2;  and  arsenic,  1  part.  Or 
copper,  7;  zinc,  3;  and  tin,  4  parts. 

Britannia  Metal.— Brass,  4;  tin,  4  parts;  when  fused,  add  bis- 
ninth,  4;  and  antimony,  4  parts.  This  composition  is  added  at  dis- 
cretion to  melted  tin. 

Jeweler's  Soldering  Fluid.— Take  alcohol,  and  add  to  it  all 
the  chloride  of  zinc  it  will  dissolve,  and  it  is  ready  for  use.  A  good 
soft  aolder  for  repairing,— equal  quantities  of  tin,  and  lead  from  tea- 
boxes. 

Tinman's  Solder.— Lead,  1;  tin,  1  part. 
Pewterer's  Solder.— Tin,  2;  lead,  1  part. 
Common  Pewter.— Tin,  4;  lead,  1  part. 
Best  Pewter.— Tin,  100;  antimony,  17  parts. 

Queen's  Metal.— Tin,  9;  antimony,  1;  bismuth,  1;  lead.  1 
part. 

Tinning  Iron. — Cleanse  the  metal  to  be  tinned;  and  rub  with  a 
coarse  cloth,  previously  dipped  in  hydrochloric  acid  (muriatic  acid,) 
and  then  rub  on  French  putty  with" the  same  cloth.  French  putty 
is  made  by  mixing  tin  filings  with  mercury. 

Tinning.— 1.  Plates  or  vessels  of  brass  or  copper  boiled  with  a 
solution  of  stannate  of  potassa,  mixed  with  turnings  of  tin,  heroine, 
in  the  course  of  a  few  minutes,  covered  with  a  firmly  attached 
layer  of  pure  tin.  2.  A  similar  effect  is  produced  by  boiling  the 
articles  with  tin-filings  and  caustic  alkali,  or  cream  of  tartar.  In 
the  above  way,  chemical  vessels  made  of  copper  or  brass  may  be 
easily  and  perfectly  tinned. 

New  Tinning  Process.— The  articles  to  be  tinned  are  first  cov- 
ered with  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  and,  when  quite  clean,  are  placed 
in  warm  water,  then  dipped  in  a  solution  of  muriatic  acid,  copper, 
and  zinc,  and  then  plunged  into  a  tin  bath  to  which  a  small  quantity 
of  zinc  has  been  added.  When  the  tinning  is  finished,  the  articles 
are  taken  out  and  plunged  into  boiling  water.  The  operation  is 
completed  by  placing  them  in  a  very  warm  sand-bath.  This  last 
process  softens  the  iron. 


RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    179 

Kustitien'B  Metal  for  Tinning.— Malleable  iron,  1  lb.,  heat  to 
whiteness;  add  5  o/..  ragullM  of  antimony,  and  Molucca  tin,  24 
pound*. 

Watchmaker's  Brass.— Copper,  1  part;  zinc,  2  parts. 

German  Brass.— Copper,  1  part;  zinc,  1  part. 

Brass  for  Heavy  Castings.— Copper,  6  to  7  parts;  tin,  1  part; 
ziiic,  1  part. 

Yellow  Brass. — (FOR  CASTTNGS). — 1.  Copper,  61.6  parts;  zinc, 
35.3  parts;  lead,  2.9  parts;  tin,  0.2  parts.  2.  BRASS  OF  JEMAPPES. — 
Copper,  64.6  parts;  zinc,  33.7  parts;  lead,  1.4  parts;  tin,  0.2  parts. 
3.  SHEET  BRASS  OF  STOLBERG  NEAR  AIX-LA-CHAPELLE.— Copper, 
64.8  parts;  zinc,  32.8  parts;  lead,  2.0  parts;  tin,  0.4  parts.  4.  D'AR- 
CET'S  HRASS  FOR  GILDING — Copper,  63.70  parts;  zinc,  33.65  parts; 
load,  0.25  parts;  tin,  2.50  parts.  5.  ANOTHER. — Copper,  64. 45j>arts; 
zinc,  32.44  parts;  lead,  2.86  parts;  tin,  0.25  parts.  6.  SHEET  BRASS 
OF  ROMILLY.— Copper,  70.1  parts;  zinc,  29.9  parts.  7.  ENGLISH 
BRASS  WIRE.— Copper,  70.29  parts;  zinc,  29.26  parts;  lead,  0.28 
parts;  tin,  0.17  parts.  8.  AUGSBURG  BRASS  WIRE.— Copper,  71.89 
parts;  zinc,  27.63  parts;  tin,  0.85  parts. 

Red  Brass  for  Gilt  Articles.— 1.  Copper,  82.0  parts;  zinc,  18.0 
parts;  lead,  1.5  parts;  tin,  3.0  parts.  2.  ANOTHER.— Copper,  82 
parts;  zinc,  18  parts;  lead,  3  parts;  tin,  1  part.  3.  ANOTHI.H. — 
Copper,  82.3  parts;  zinc,  17.5  parts;  tin,  0.2  parts.  4.  FRENCH 
TOMBAC  FOR  SWORD  HANDLES. — Copper,  80  parts;  zinc,  17  parts; 
tin,  3  parts.  5.  FOR  PARISIAN  ORNAMENTS. — Copper,  85  parts; 
zinc,  15  parts;  tin,  a  trace.  6.  USED  FOR  GERMAN  ORNAMENTS.— 
Copper,  85.3  parts;  zinc,  14.7  parts.  7.  CHRYSOCHALK.— Copper, 
90.0  parts;  zinc,  7.9  parts;  lead,  1.6  parts.  8.  RED  TOMBAC  FROM 
PARIS. — Copper,  92  parts;  zinc,  8  parts. 

Compositions.— 1.  FOR  STRONG  PUMPS,  Ac.— Copper,  1  lb. ;  zinc, 
X  oz. ;  fin,  1%  oz.  2.  FOR  TOOTHED  WHEELS.— Copper,  1  lb. ;  brass, 
2oz.;  tin,  2  oz.  3.  Copper,  1  lb.;  brass,  2  oz.;  tin,  1%  oz.  4  FOR 
TURNING  WORK.— Copper,  1  lb.;  brass,  1%  oz.;  tin,  2  oz.  5.  FOR 
NUTS  OF  COARSE  THREADS  AND  BEARINGS. — Copper,  1  lb. ;  brass, 
1U  oz.,  tin,  2^  oz.  6.  FOR  BEARINGS  TO  SUSTAIN  GREAT 
WEIGHTS.— Copper,  1  lb.;  zinc,  X  oz.;  tin,  2%  oz.  7.  PEWTKKKK'S 
TEMPER.— Tin,  2  lb.;  copper,  1  lb.  Used  to  add  in  small  quantities 
to  tin.  8.  HAKD  BEARINGS  FOR  MACHINERY.— Copper,  1  lb.;  tin, 
2oz.  9.  VEUY  HARD  DITTO.— Copper,  1  lb.;  tin,  2}$  oz. 

Babbitt  Metal.— Copper,  4  Ibs.;  regulus  of  antimony,  8  Ibs.; 
Banca  tin,  96  Ibs. 

Fenton's  Anti-Friction  Metal.— Grain  zinc,  7J£  Ibs.;  purified 
zince,  1]4  Ibs.;  antimony,  1  lb. 

Anti-Friction/Alloy  for  Journal  Boxes.— Zinc,  17  parts; 
per,   1   part;  antimony,   1)4   parts.     This  possesses  unsu 
anti-friction  qualities, 'and  does  not  require  the  protection  of  outer 
casings  of  a-harder  metal. 

Babbitt  Metal.— Block  tin,  8  Ibs.;  antimony,  2  Ibs.;  copper, 
1  lb.  If  the  metal  be  too  hard,  it  may  be  softened  by  adding  some 
lead. 


180    RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

Alloy  for  Journal  Boxes. — The  best  alloy  for  journal 
composed  of  copper,  iM  ll>s. ;  tin,  'J4  Ibs. ;  ami  antimony,  *  Ibs.     Melt 
tho  copper  first,  then  add  the  tin,   and    lastly  the  'antimony.     It 
should  be  first  run  into  ingots,  then  melted,  and  cast  in  the  form 
required  for  the  boxes. 

To  Gild  Steel.— Pour  some  of  the  ethereal  solution  of  gold  into 
a  wine  glass,  and  dip  into  it  the  blade  of  a  new  penknile,  ra/or, 
lancet,  Arc.;  withdraw  the  instrument,  and  allow  the  ether  to  evapo- 
rate. The  blade  will  then  be  found  covered  with  a  beautiful  coat 
Of  gold.  The  blade  may  be  moiMened  with  a  dean  ray,  or  a  small 
piece  of  very  dry  sponge,  dipped  into  the  ether;  and  the  same  effects 
will  be  produced. 

To  Weld  Cast  Iron.— Take  of  good  clear  white  sand,  3  parts; 
refined  solton,  1  part;  fosterine,  1  part:  roek  salt,  1  part:  mix  all 
together.  Take  •_'  pieces  of  cast  iron,  heat  them  in  a  moderate  char- 
coal  fire,  occasionally  taking  them  out  while  heating,  and  dipping 
them  into  the  composition,  until  they  are  of  a  proper  heat  to  weld; 
then  at  once  lay  them  on  the  anvil,  and  gently  hammer  them 
together,  and,  if  done  carefully  by  one  who  understands  welding 
iron,  you  will  have  them  nicely  welded  together.  One  man  prefers 
heatiim  the  metal,  then  cooling  it  in  the  water  of  common  beans, 
and  heat  it  again  for  welding. 

To  Galvanize  Iron.— Cleanse  the  surface  of  the  iron  perfectly 
by  the  joint  action  of  dilute  acid  and  friction,  plunge  it  into  a  bath 
or  melted  zinc  covered  with  sal-ammoniac,  and  stir  it  about  till  it 
be  alloyed  superficially  with  this  metal.  AVhen  the  metal  thus  pre- 
pared is  exposed  to  humidity,  the  xinc  oxidizes  slowly  by  a  galvanic 
action,  and  protects  the  iron  within  from  rust;  whereby  the  outer 
surface  remains  fora  long  time  perfectly  white,  in  drcnmfltanoea 
under  which  iron  tinned  in  the  usual  way  would  be  corroded  with 
rust. 

Muntz  Metal  for  Ships.— Best  selected  copper,  fin  pirts;  best 
zinc,  40  parts:  melt  together  in  the  usual  manner,  and  roll  into 
sheets  of  suitable  thickness.  This  composition  resists  oxidation 
from  exposure  to  sea  water,  and  prevents  the  adhesion  of  bar- 
nacles. 

Tempering  Saws,  &c.— The  visual  method  of  tempering  saws 
is  to  heat,  and  then  dip  them  in  oil.  This  process  is  slow,  costly, 
and  laborious.  It  is  also  disadvantageous,  because  the  saws  become 
warped,  and  require  to  be  hammered  up  straight  again  by  hand. 
A  late  improvement  consists  in  tempering  and  straightening  the 
saws  at  one  operation.  This  is  done  by  heathm  the  saw-  to  the 
proper  degree,  and  then  pressing  them  wi'th  a  sudden  and  powerful 
stroke  between  two  surfaces  of  cold  iron.  A  drop  press  is  employed 
for  the  purpose.  The  mechanism  is  quite  simple  and  inexpensive. 
Its  use  effects  an  important  economy  in  the  manufacture  of  nearly 
all  kinds  of  saws,  and  aiso  improves  their  quality. 

Silvering  .Shells.— Silver  leaf  and  gum  water  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity; grind  to  a  proper  thickness,  and  cover  the  inside  of  the  shells. 


RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.     18 

For  a  fjold  color,  grind  up  gold-leaf  with  gum  water,  and  apply  t 

the  inside  of  tin-  shells. 

Liquid  Foil  for  Silvering  Glass  Globes,  &c.  —  Lead, 
part  ;  tin,  1  part;  bismuth,  1  part:  melt,  and,  just  before  it  sets 
add  mercury,  10  parts.  Pour  this  into  the  globe,  and  turn  it  rapidl; 
round. 

To  Soften  Iron  or  Steel.—  Either  of  the  following  method 
will  make  iron  or  steel  as  soft  as  lead:  —  1.  Anoint  it  all  over  wit] 
tallow,  temper  it  in  a  gentle  charcoal  fire,  and  let  it  cool  of  itsell 
2.  Take  a  little  clay,  cover  your  iron  with  it,  temper  in  a  charcoa 
fire.  3.  When  the  iron  or  steel  is  red  hot,  strew  hellebore  on  H 
4.  Quench  the  iron  or  steel  in  the  juice  or  water  of  common  beans. 

Tempering.—  The  article,  after  being  completed,  is  hardened  b; 
being  heated  gradually  to  a  bright  red,  and  then  plunged  into  col< 
water:  it  is  then  tempered  by  being  warmed  gradually  and  equably 
either  over  a  fire,  or  on  a  piece  of  heated  metal,  till  of  the  color  cor 
responding  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  required,  as  pe-  Mi 
below;  when  it  is  again  plunged  into  water. 

CORRESPONDING  TEMPERATURE. 

A  very  pale  straw,    -  430    Lancets,  t 

Straw,  ......  4.10    Razors.    $ 

Darker  Straw    -    -    -  470    Penknives.  /  All  kinds  of  wood  tools. 

Yellow,     .....  490    Scissors.       $  Screw  taps. 

Brown  yellow,  -    -    -  600  )  Hatehets,  chipping  chisels, 

Slightly  tinged  purple,  520  $  Saws. 

Purple,      .....  530  )  All  kinds  of  percussive  tools. 


Dark  blue,    ....    600    Soft  for  saws. 

Cast  Iron  Cement.  —  Clean  borings  or  turnings  of  east  iron, 
16;  sal  ammoniac,  -';  flour  of  sulphur,  1  part;  mix  them  well  togethei 
in  a  mortar;  and  keep  them  dry.  When  required  for  use,  take  ol 
the  mixture,  1;  clean  borings,  'JO  parts;  mix  thoroughly,  and  add  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  water.  A  little  grindstone  dust  added  im- 
proves the  cement. 

Cement  for  Steam  Pipe  Joints,  Etc.,  with  Faced 
Flanges.  —  White  lead,  mixed,  2;  red  lead,  dry,  1  part;  grind.  01 
otherwise  mix  them  to  a  consistence  of  thin  putty;  apply  interposed 
layers  with  one  or  two  thicknesses  of  canvas,  or  gauze  wire,  as  the 
necessity  of  the  case  may  be. 

Crucibles.—  The  best  crucibles  are  made  from  a  pure  fire  clay, 
mixed  with  finely  ground  c<innit  of  old  crucibles,  and  a  portion  ol 
black  lead  or  graphite:  some  pounded  coke  may  be  mixed  with  the 
plumbago.  The  clay  should  be  prepared  in  a  similar  way  as  for 
making  pottery  ware:  the  vessels  alter  being  formed,  must  be 
slowly  dried,  and  then  properly  baked  in  the  kiln. 

BLACK  LEAD  CRUCIBLES  are  made  of  2  parts  graphite,  and  1  of 
fire-clav,  mixed  with  water  into  a  paste,  pressed  in  moulds,  and 
well  dried,  but  not  baked  hard  in  the  kiln.  This  compound  forma 
excellent  small  or  portable  furnaces. 


182    RECEIPTS   FOB  MECHANICAL   PURPOSES. 

To  Purify  Gas.— The  purifier  is  to  lx>  filled  with  milk  of  lime, 
made  by  mixing  1  part  of  shirked  lime  with  25  parts  of  water.  A 
very  threat  Improvement  in  the  purification  of  <jas  has  been  effected 
by  Mr.  Shifter,  of  England,  by  the  employment  of  hydrated  clay 
•long  with  the  lime  employed  for  this  purpose,  Hydrated  clay 
unites  with  the  ammonia  of  the  gas  as  with  a  base,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  with  its  sulphuret  of  carbon  as  an  acid,  and  thus  removes  both 
of  these  noxious  impurities  from  the  gas  exposed  to  its  influence. 
It  assists  also,  in  conjunction  with  the  lime,  in  removing  tarry  vapor 
and  other  impurities  from  the  gas.  The  illuminating  power  of  the 
gas  is  positively  increased  by  the  clay  purification  from.  22  to  33%  per 
cent. 

To  Joint  Lead  Plates.— The  joints  of  lead  plates  for  some  pur- 
poses are  made  as  follows:  The  edges  are  brought  together,  ham- 
mered down  into  a  sort  of  channel  cut  out  of  wood,  and  secured  with 
a  few  tacks.  The  hollow  is  then  scraped  dean  with  a  scraper,  rub- 
bed over  with  candle  grease,  and  a  stream  of  hot  lead  is  poured  into 
it,  the  surface  being  afterwards  smoothed  with  a  red  hot  plumber's 
iron. 

To  Joint  Lead  Pipes. — Widen  out  the  end  of  one  pipe  with  a 

taper  wood  drift,  and  scrape  it  dean  inside;  scrape  the  end  of  the 
other  pipe  outside  a  little  tapered,  and  insert  it  in  the  former,  then 
solder  it  with  common  lead  solder  as  before  described;  or,  if  it  re- 
quires to  be  strong,  rub  a  little  tallow  over,  and  cover  the  joint  with 
a  ball  of  melted  lead,  holding  a  cloth  (2  or  3  plies  of  greased  bed- 
tick)  on  the  under  side;  and  smoothing  over  with  it  and  the 
plumber's  iron. 

Composition  used  in  Welding  Cast  Steel.  — Borax,  10; 
sal  ammoniac,  1  part;  grind  or  pound  them  roughly  together;  then 
fuse  them  in  a  metal  pot  over  a  clear  fire,  taking  care  to  continue 
the  heat  until  all  spume  lias  disappeared  from  the  surface.  When 
the  liquid  appears  dear,  the  composition  is  ready  to  be  poured  out 
to  cool  and  concrete;  afterwards  being  ground  to  a  fine  powder  it  is 
ready  for  use.  To  use  this  composition,  th<-  steel  to  be  welded  is 
raised  to  a  heat  which  maybe  expressed  by  "bright  yellow;"  it  is 
then  dipped  among  the  welding  powder,  anil  again  placed  in  the  fire 
until  it  attains  the  sam  •  degree  of  heat  as  before;  it  is  then  ready  to 
be  placed  under  the  hammer. 

To  prevent  Deposits  of  Lime  In  Boilers. — Throw  into  the 
tank  or  reservoir  from  which  your  boiler  is  fed,  a  quantity  of  rough 
bark,  in  the  piece,  such  as  tanners  use,  sufficient  to  turn  the  water 
of  a  brown  color;  if  you  have  no  tank,  put  into  the  boiler  from  a 
half  to  a  bushel  of  ground  bark  when  you  blow  off;  repeat  every 
month,  using  only  half  the  quantity  after  the  first  time. 

Scaling  Cast  Iron. — Vitriol,  1  part;  water,  2  parts;  mix  and  lay 
on  the  diluted  vitriol  with  some  old  cloth  in  the  form  of  a  brush, 
enough  to  w  t  th  •  surface  well:  after  s  or  10  hours,  wash  off  with 
water,  when  the  hard,  scaly  surface  will  be  completely  removed. 


RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    183 

Varnish,  for  Smooth  Moulding  Patterns. — Alcohol,  1  gallon; 
shellac,  1  lb.;  lump  or  ivory  black,  sufficient  to  color  it. 

Cast  Iron  Ornaments  are  rendered  susceptible  of  being  finished 
with  ii  scraper,  win-re  they  cannot  be  reached  with  files,  after  having 
the  above  liquid  applied  to  them. 

Iron  Lustre  is  obtained  by  dissolving  a  piece  of  zinc  with  muriatic 
acid,  nnd  mixing  the  solution  with  spirit  of  tar,  and  applying  it  to 
the  surface  of  iron. 

To  Melt  Steel  as  Easily  as  Lead.— This  apparent  impossi- 
bility is  easily  performed  by  heating  the  bar  of  iron  or  steel  ren  hot, 
and  then  touching  it  with  a  roll  of  brimstone,  when  the  metal  will 
drop  like  water. 

Patent  Lubricating  Oil.— Water,  1  gal.;  clean  tallow,  3  Ibs.: 
palm  oil.  10  Ibs. :  common  soda,  ^  lb.  Heat  the  mixture  to  about 
210°  F.;  stir  well  till  it  cools  down  to  70°  F.,  when  it  is  fit  for  use. 

Black  Having  a  Polish  for  Iron- — Pulverized  gum  asphal- 
tum,  2  Ibs. ;  gum  benzoin,  V^  lb. ;  spirits  of  turpentine,  1  gal. ;  to  make 
quick,  k<>ep  in  a  warm  place,  aim  shake  often;  shade  to  suit  with 
finely  ground  ivory  black.  Apply  with  a  brush.  And  it  ought  to 
be  used  on  iron  exposed  to  the  weather  as  well  as  on  inside  work, 
desiring  a  nice  appearance  or  polish.  Or: 

Varnish  for  Iron.— Asphaltum,  8  Ibs.;  melt  in  an  iron  kettle, 
slowly  adding  boiled  linseed  oil,  5  gals.;  litharge,  1  lb.,  and  sulphate 
of  zinc,  %  lb. ;  continuing  to  boil  for  3  hours;  then  add  dark  gum 
amber,  \%  Ibs.;  and  continue  to  boil  2  hours  longer.  When  cool, 
reduce  to  a  proper  consistence  to  apply  with  a  brush,  with  spirits  of 
turpentine. 

To  Restore  Burnt  Steel,  and  improve  Poor  Steel. — Borax,  3 
oz. ;  sal  ammoniac,  8  o?.. ;  prussiate  of  potash,  :$  oz. ;  blue  clay,  2  oz.: 
resin,  1^  Ibs.;  water,  1  gill;  alcohol,  1  gill.  Put  all  on  the  fire,  and 
simmer  till  it  dries  to  a  powder.  The  steel  is  to  be  heated,  and  dipped, 
into  this  powder,  and  afterwards  hammered. 

Composition  to  toughen  Steel.— Resin,  2  Ibs.;  tallow,  2  Ibs.; 
black  pitch,  1  lb.;  melt  togother,  aud  dip  in  the  steel  when  hot. 

Burglar  and  Drill  Proof  Diamond  Chill.— Take  1  gal.  urine, 
and  add  to  it  1  oz.  borax  and  1  oz.  salt. 

How  to  Re-cut  Old  Piles  and  Rasps. — Dissolve  4  oz.  of 
sal.Tatus  in  l  <it.  of  water,  and  boil  the  files  in  it  for  half  an  hour; 
then  remove,  wash  and  dry  them.  Now  have  ready,  in  a  glass  or 
stone- ware  vessel,  1  qt.  of  'rain  water,  into  which  you  have  slowly 
added  4  oz.  of  best  sulphuric  acid,  and  keep  the  proportions  for  any 
amount  used.  Immerse  the  files  in  this  preparation  for  from  six  to 
twelve  hours,  according  to  fineness  or  coarseness  of  the  file;  then 
remove;  wash  them  clean,  dry  quickly,  and  put  a  little  sweei  oil  on 
them  to  cover  the  surface.  If  the  files  are  coarse,  they  will  need  to 
remain  in  about  twelve  hours,  but  for  fine  files  six  to  eight  hours  is 
sufficient.  This  plan  is  applicable  to  blacksmiths',  gunsmiths',  tin- 


184    RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

ners',  coppersmiths',  and  machinists' files.  Copper  and  tin  workers 
will  only  require  a  snort  time  to  take  tin-  articles  out  of  their  files, 

as  the  soil  metals  with  which  they  become  tilled  arc  soon  dissolved. 
Blacksmiths'  and  saw-mill  files  require  full  time.  Files  may  he  re- 
cut  three  times  by  thb,  prooeM.  The  liquid  may  lie  u>ed  at  different 
times  if  required.  Keep  away  from  children,  as  it  is  poisonous. 

Substitute  for  Borax.— Copperas,  2  oz.;  saltpetre,  1  oz.;  com- 
mon salt,  (i  o/..;  black  oxide  of  manganese,  1  oz.;  prussiate  of  pot- 
ash, 1  o/.;  all  pulverized  and  mixed  with  .'5  Ibs.  nice  welding  >and, 
and  UM-  the  same  as  you  would  sand.  High-tempered  M.-.-l  can  be 
Welded  with  this  at  a  lower  heat  than  is  required  for  borax. 

Tempering  Liquid. — To  6  qts.  soft  water  put  in  corrosive  subli- 
mate, 1  o/..;  common  salt,  -  handl'uls;  when  dissolved,  it  is  read\  for 
use.  The  first  gives  toughness  to  the  steel,  while  the  latter  gives 
the  hardness.  Bo  careful  with  this  preparation,  as  it  is  a  dangerous 
poison. 

Another.— Salt,  %  tea-cup;  saltpetre,  %  oz.,  alum,  pulverized, 
1  teaspoon;  soft  water,  1  gallon;  never  heat  over  a  cherry  red,  nor 
draw  any  temper. 

Another.— Saltpetre,  sal-ammoniac  and  alum,  of  each  2  oz. ;  salt, 
1%  Ibs.;  water,  3  gallons,  and  draw  no  temper 

Another. — Saltpetre  and  alum  each,  2  oz.;  sal-ammoniac,  %  oz.; 
salt,  JH  Ibs.;  soft  water,  L'  gallons.  Heat  to  a  cherry  red,  and  plunge 
in,  drawing  no  temper. 

Another.— Water,  3  gallons;  salt,  2  qts.;  sal-ammoniac  and  salt- 
petre, of  each  L'  o/.;  a.-.he>  from  white-a>h  bark,  1  shovel,  which 
causes  the  steel  to  scale  white  and  smooth  as  silver.  Do  not  ham- 
mer too  cold,  to  avoid  flaws;  do  not  heat  too  high,  which  opens  the 
pores  of  the  steel;  and  do  not  heat  more  than  one  or  two  incin-s  of 
the  steel  at  a  time  while  tempering,  if  you  wish  the  hardness  and 
toughness  of  the  steel  to  be  of  the  first  quality. 

To  Improve  Poor  Iron.— Black  oxide  of  manganese,  1  part; 

copperas  and  common  salt,  4  pans  e.i--h;  dissolve  in  -,olt  water,  and 
boil  till  dry;  when  cool,  pulvcri/.e  and  mix  quite  freely  with  nice 
welding  Band.  When  you  have  poor  iron  which  yon  cannot  afford 
to  throw  away,  heat  it,  and -roll  it  in  this  mixture;  \\orkinglnr  a 
time,  reheating,  Arc.,  will  soon  tree  it  from  all  impurities,  which  is 
the  cause  of  its  rottenness.  By  this  process  you  can  make  good 
horse-nails  out  of  common  iron. 

Case  Hardening  for  Iron.— Case  iron  may  be  case-hardened  by 
heating  to  a  red  heat,  and  then  rolling  it  in  a  composition  composed 
of  equal  parts  of  prussiate  of  potash,  sal-ammoniac,  and  saltpetre, 
all  pulverized  and  thoroughly  mixed.  This  mu.4  be  got  to  every 
part  of  the  surface;  then  plunged,  while  yet  hot,  into  a  bath  con- 
taining '2  07..  prussiate  of  potash,  and  4  oz.  sal-ammoniac  to  each 
gallon  of  cold  water. 

For  Malleable  Iron.— Put  the  articles  in  an  iron  box,  and 
Stratify  them  among  animal  carbon,  that  is,  pieces  of  horns,  hoofs, 


RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    185 

skins  or  leather,  lust  sufficiently  burned  to  be  reduced  to  powder. 

Lulc  tln>  box  with  equal  parts  o'f  siind  aii'l  Hay;  then  place  it  in  the 
tin-.  and  keep  at  a  light  red  heat  for  ;i  length  of  time  proportioned 
to  the  depth  of  >teel  required,  when  the  contents  of  the  box  are 
emptied  into  water. 

Another  for  Wrought  Iron.— Take  the  prussfate  of  potash, 
finely  pahrerlzed.  and  roll  the  article  in  it,  if  its  shape  admits  of  it; 
if  not,  sprinkle  the  powder  upon  it  freely  while  the  iron  is  hot. 

To  Soften  Cast  Iron  for  Drilling. — TTeattoacherryred,  having 
It  lie  level  in  the  fire;  then  with  a  pair  of  cold  tongs  put  on  a  piece 
of  brimstone,  a  little,  less  in  size  than  the  hole  to  be,  when  drilled,  and 
it  softens  entirely  through  the  piece;  let  it  lie  in  the  fire  until  a  little 
cool,  when  it  is  ready  for  drilling. 

To  Temper  Springs.— For  tempering  cast-steel  trap  springs,  all 
that  is  necessary  is  to  neat  them  in  the  dark,  just  so  that  you  can 
see  that  they  are  red;  then  cool  them  in  luke-warm  water.  You 
can  observe  a  much  lower  degree  of  heat  in  the  dark  than  by  day- 
light, and  the  low  heat  and  warm  water  give  the  desired  temper. 

To  Mend  Broken  Saws. — Pure  silver,  19  parts;  pure  copper,  1 
part;  pure  brass,  2  parts;  all  to  be  filed  into  powder,  and  thoroughly 
mixed;  place  the  saw  level  on  the  anvil,  broken  edges  in  contact, 
and  hold  them  so;  now  put  a  small  line  of  the  mixture  along  the 
soam,  covering  it  with  a  larger  bulk  of  powdered  charcoal;  now 
with  a  spirit  lamp  and  a  jeweller's  blow-pipe,  hold  the  coal  dust  in 
place,  and  blow  sufficient  to  melt  the  solder  mixture;  then  with  a 
hammer  set  the  joint  smooth,  and  lile  away  any  superfluous  solder, 
and  you  will  be  surprised  at  its  strength;  the  neat  will  not  injure 
the  temper  of  the  saw. 

"Writing  Inscriptions  on  Metals.— Take  \/  Ib.  nitric  acfd  and 
1  m.  muriatic  acid.  Mix,  shake  well  together,  and  it  is  ready  for 
use.  Cover  the  place  you  wish  to  mark  with  melted  bees- wax; 
when  cold,  write  your  inscription  plainly  in  the,  wax  clear  to  the 
metal  with  a  sharp  instrument;  then  apply  the  mixed  acids  with  a 
feather,  carefully  filling  each  letter.  Let  it  remain  from  one  to  ten 


minutes,  according  to  appearance  desired;  then  throw  on  water, 
which  stops  the  process,  and  remove  the  wax. 

Black  Varnish  for  Iron  Work.— Asphalhim,  1  Ib. ;  lampblack, 
>^lb.;  resin,  %  Ib.;  spirits  turpentine,  1  qt.;  linseed  oil,  just  suffi- 
cient to  rub  up  the  lampblack  with  before  mixing  it  with  the  others. 
Apply  with  a  camel's  hair  brush. 

.  To  Petrify  Wood.— Gem  salt,  rock  alum,  white  vinegar,  chalk 
and  peebles  powder,  of  each  an  equal  quantity.  Mix  well  together. 
If,  after  the  ebullition  is  over,  you  throw  into  this  liquid  any  wood 
or  porous  substance,  it  will  petrify  it. 

The  Finest  Bronze.— Put  in  a  clean  crucible  7  Ihs.  copper,  melt, 
then  add  3  Ihs.  zinc,  afterwards '_>  Ib;.  tin.  In  order  to  gild  polished 
Bteel  or  polished  iron,  dip  the  article  into  an  ethereal  solution  of 


186    RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 


go 
th 


old,  withdraw  from  the  solution,  and  the  ether  flies  off  and  leaves 
gold  deposited. 

Soft  Cement,  for  Steam  Boilers,  Steam  Pipes,  &c.—  Red  or 

white  lead,  in  oil,  4;  iron  borings,  '2  to  ii  parts. 

Hard  Cement.  —  Iron  borings  and  salt  water,  and  a  small  quan- 
tity of  sal  ammoniac  with  fresh  \\ater. 

Black  Varnish,  for  Coal  Buckets.—  Asphaltum,  1  lb.;  lamp- 
black, >i  lb.;  resin,  %  11).;  spirits  of  turpentine,  1  41.  Dissolve  the 
asphaltum  ami  resin  in  the  turpentine;  then  rub  the  lampblack  with 
linseed  oil,  only  sulHcient  to  form  a  paste,  and  mix  with  the  others. 
Apply  with  a  brush. 

Soldering  Fluid.—  Take  2  oz.  muriatic  acid;  add  zinc  till  bub- 

bles eease  to  rise;  add  >£  teaspoonful  of  sal  ammoniac  and  :.'  o/..  of 
water.  Damp  the  part  you  wish  to  solder  with  this  lluid;  lay  on  a 
small  pieee  ot  solder,  and  with  a  piece  of  hot  iron  or  soldering  iron 
solder  the  part. 

Japan  Flow  for  Tin.  —  ALL.  COLORS.  —  Gum  sandarac,  1  lb.; 

balsam  of  tit,  balsam  of  Tolu,  and  acetate  of  lead,  of  each,  L'ox.; 
lin-vi'il  oil,  ^  pint;  spirits  of  turp.-ntine,  -2  qts.  Put  all  into  a 
suitable  kettle,  except  the  turpentine,  over  a  slow  fire,  at  first; 
then  rai>e  to  a  higher  h'-at  till  all  are  metled;  now  take  from  the 
lire,  and,  when  a  little  cool,  stir  in  the  spirits  of  turpentine,  and 
strain  through  a  fine  cloth.  This  is  transparent;  but  by  the  fol- 
lowing modifications  any  or  all  the  various  colors  are  made  from 
it. 

2.  BLACK.—  Prussian  blue,  1  oz.;  asphaltum,  2  oz.;  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine, >i  pint.     Melt  the  asphaltum  in  the  turpentine;  rub  up  the 
blue  with  a  little  of  it;  mix  well,  and  strain;  then  add  the  whole  to 
1  pint  of  thejint,  above. 

3.  BLUE.  —  Indigo,  and  Prussian  blue,  both  finely  pulverized,  of 
each  ]4  oz.;  spirits  of  turpentine,  1   pint.     Mix  well,  and   strain. 
Add  of  this  to  one  pint  of  theji/vtf  until  the  color  suits. 

4.  RED.  —  Take  spirits  of  turpentine,  %  pt;  add  cochineal,  %  oz.; 
let  stand  1">  hours,  and  strain.    Add  ot  this  to  the  jir*(in  suit  the 
fancy.    It  earmine  is  used  instead  of  cochineal,  it  will  make  a  fine 
color  for  watch  hands. 

5.  YELLOW.—  Take  1  oz.  of  pulverized  root  of  curcuma,  and  stir 
of  it  into  1  pt.  of  thejffrt  until  the  color  pleases  you;  let  stand  a  few 
hours,  and  strain. 

6.  GREEN.—  Mix  equal  parts  of  the  blue  and  yellow  together,  then 
mix  with  ttivjirat  until  it  suits  the  fancy. 

7.  ORANGE.  —  Mix  a  little  of  the  red  with  more  of  the  yellow,  and 
then  with  the  first  as  heretofore,  until  pleased. 

8.  PINK.—  Mix  a  little  of  the  blue  to  more  in  quantity  of  the  red, 
and  then  with  thujint  until  suited.     Apply  with  a  brush. 

Transparent  Blue  for  Iron  or  Steel.  —  Demar  varnish,  J£  gal.; 
fine  MViuiul  Prussian  blue,  y»  oz.;  mix  thoroughly.  Makes  a  splen- 
did appearance.  Excellent  for  blueing  watch  hands. 


RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    187 

To  Tin  Copper  Stew  Dishes,  etc.—  Wash  the  surface  of  the 

article  to  be  tinned  with  sulphuric  arid,  and  ruh  the  surface  well, 
so  a-,  to  have  it  smooth  ami  fro:'  of  blaeklMM  caused  by  the  acid; 
then  sprinkl"  calcined  and  finely  pulverized  sal-annii'iniae  upon  the 
surface,  holding  it  over  a  fire,  when  it  will  be,  sufficiently  hot  to 
melt  a  bar  of  solder  which  is  to  be  rubbed  over  the  surface:  any 
copper  dish  or  vessel  may  be  tinned  in  this  way. 

To  Copper  the  Surface  of  Iron,  Steel,  or  Iron  Wire.— 
Have  the  article  perfectly  clean,  then  wash  with  the  following  solu- 
tion, and  it  presents  at  once  a  coppered  surface.  Rain  water,  3  Ibs.  ; 
sulphate  of  copper,  1  Ib. 

To  Tin  Iron  for  Soldering,  Ac.  —  Take  any  quantity  of  mu- 
riatic acid,  and  dissolve  all  the  zinc  in  it  that  it  will  cut;  dilute 
it  with  one-fourth  as  much  soft  water  as  of  acid,  and  it  is  ready  for 
use.  Rub  this  liquid  on  iron;  and  no  matter  how  rusty  it  may 
be,  it  will  brighten  it  up  so  that  solder  will  readily  adhere  to  it;  or 
the  above  copper  solution  may  be  applied,  giving  it  a  coat  of  cop- 
per. 

Gold  Lacquer  for  Tin.—  TRANSPARENT,  ALL  COLORS.—  Alco- 
hol in  a  flask,  ]4  pt.  ;  add  gum  shellac,  1  oz.;  turmeric,  %  o/..;  red 
sanders,  \£  ox.  Set  the  flask  in  a  warm  place,  shake  frequently  for 
12  hours  or  more,  then  strain  off  the  liquor,  rinse  the  bottle,  and 
return  it,  corking  tightly  for  use. 

When  this  varnish  is  used,  it  must  be  applied  to  the  work  freely 
and  flowing;  and  the  article  must  be  hot  when  applied.  One  or 
more  coats  may  be  laid  on,  as  the  color  is  required  more  or  less 
light  or  deep.  If  any  of  it  should  become  thick  from  evaporation, 
at  any  time,  thin  it  with  alcohol.  And  by  the  following  modifica- 
tions, all  the  various  colors  are  obtained. 

2.  ROSK  COLOR.—  Proceed  as  above,  substituting  \£  or.,  of  finely 
ground  best  lake  in  place  of  the  turmeric. 

3.  BLUE.—  The  blue  is  made  by  substituting  pulverized  Prussian 
blue,  %  oz.,  in  place  of  the  turmeric. 

4.  PURPLE.—  Add  a  little  of  the  blue  to  the/rrt. 

5.  GREEN.—  Add  a  little  of  the  rose-color  to  the  first. 

Crystallized  Tin  Plate.  —  The  figures  are  more  or  less  beau- 
tiful and  diversified,  according  to  the  degree  of  heat,  and  rela- 
tive dilution  of  the  acid.  Place  the  tin-plate,  slightly  heated,  over 


a  tub  of  water,  and  rub  its  surface  with  a  sponge  dipped  in  a  liquor 
composed  of  four  parts  of  aquafortis,  and  two  of  distilled  water, 
holding  one  part  of  common  salt  or  sal  ammoniac  in  solution. 


Whenever  the  crystalline  spangles  seem  to  be  thoroughly  brought 
out,  the  plate  must  be  imm  Tsed  in  water,  'washed  either  with  a 
feather  or  a  little  cotton  (taking  ear  •  not  to  ru!>  off  the  film  of  tin 
that,  forms  the  feathering),  forthwith  dried  with  a  low  heat,  and 
coated  with  a  lacker  varnish,  otherwise  it  loses  its  lustre  in  the  air. 
If  the  whole  surface  is  not  plunged  at  once  in  cold  water,  but  if  it 
be  partially  cooled  by  sprinkling  water  on  it,  the  crystallization 
will  be  finely  variegated  with  large  and  small  figures.  Similar 


188    RECEIPTS  FOR   MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

results  will  be  obtained  by  blowing  cold  air  through  a  pipe  on  the 
tinned  .-.urfaee,  while  it  is  just  passing  from  the  fused  to  the  solid 
state. 

To  Crystallize  Tin.— Sulphuric  acid,  4  oz.;  soft  water,  2  to  3 
07..,  according  to  strength  of  tin-  acid:  salt,  !'.£  <)/.;  mix;  heat  the 
tin  hot  over  a  stove,  then  witli  a  sponge  apply  the  mixture,  then 
wasli  oil'  directly  with  clean  water.  Dry  the  tin,  and  varnish  with 
deuiar  varnish. 

Improved  Tinning  Pluac.— Muriatic  acid,  lib.;  put  into  it  all 
the  /.inc.  it  will  dissolve  and  1  oz.  sal  ammoniac,  and  it  is  ready  fur 
use. 

To  Clean  and  Polish  Brass.— Oil  of  vitriol,  1  oz.;  sweet  oil, 
14  gill;  pulveri/ed  ret  ten  stone,  1  gill;  rain  water.  I1..:  pints:  mix 
all,  and  shake  as  used.  Apply  with  a  rag,  and  polish  with  buck- 
skin or  old  woolen. 

Silvering  Powder. — Nitrate  of  silver  and  common  salt,  of 
each,  :M  grs;  cream  of  tartar,  ',%  drs.  I'ulveri/.e  finely,  mix  thor- 
oughly, and  bottle  for  use.  Unequalled  for  polishing  copper  and 
plated  goods. 

Tin  Cans.— SIZE  OP  SHEET,  FOR  FROM  1  TO  100  GALLONS: 
For    1    gallon,    7  by  20  inches.  For  25  gallons,  30  by  56  inches. 


10  by  28 
12  by  40 
14  by  40 
20  by  42 
30  by  42 


40  "  :«;  by 

50  "  40  by  70 

75  "  40  by  84 

100  "  40  by  98 


This  includes  all  the  laps,  seams,  &c.,  which  will  be  found  suffi- 
ciently correct  for  all  practical  purposes. 

To  Mend  Tinware. — Take  a  vial  two-thirds  full  of  muriatic 
acid,  put  into  it  all  the  ehippiugs  of  sheet  y.inc  it  will  dissolve,  f hen 
put  in  a  eniml)  of  >al  ammoniac,  and  fill  up  with  water.  Wet  the 
plae"  to  he  mended  with  this  liquid,  put  a  piece  of  zinc  over  the 
hole,  and  apply  a  spirit  lamp  or  candle  Ivlow  it,  which  melts  the 
solder  on  the  tin  and  causes  the  zinc  to  adhere. 

Brunswick  Black  for  Grates,  &c.— Asphaltura,  5  Ibs.;  melt, 
ami  add  boiled  oil,  2  Ibs.;  spirits  of  turpentine,  1  gal.  Mix. 

Gas  Fitter's  Cement.— Mix  together  rosin,  four  and  a  half 
parts;  wax,  1  part;  and  Venetian  red,  o  parts. 

Plumber's  Cement. — Black  resin,  l  part:  brick  dust.  2  parts; 
well  Incorporated  by  a  melting  heat.  Boiled  linked  oil  and  red 
lead  mixed  together  into  a  putty  are  often  used  by  coppersmiths 
and  engineers  to  secure  joints;  the  washers  of  leather  or  cloth  are 
smeared  with  tlus  mixture  in  a  pa.-ty  state. 

Browning  for  Gun  Barrels.— Spirits  of  nitre.  1  lb.:  alcohol,  l 
Ib. ;  corrosive  sublimate,  1  o/,. ;  mix  in  a  bottle,  and  cork  for  use. 
Directions:  Polish  the  barrel  perfect;  then  rub  it  with  quick-lime 
with  a  cloth,  which  removes  grease  and  dirt;  now  apply  the  brown- 
ing lluid  with  a  cl -an  white  cloth;  apply  one  coat,  arid  set  it  in  a 
warm  dark  place  for  from  10  to  20  hours  until  a  red  rust  forms  on 


RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.     189 

it;  then  cord  it  down  with  a  gunmaker's  cord,  and  rub  off  with  a 
clean  doth.     Kcpeat  the  process  if  you  wish  a  dark  shade. 

Browning  for  Twist  Barrels.— Spirits  of  nitre,  ^oz.;  tinc- 
ture of  steel,  %  oz.;  or  use  the  unmedicated  tincture  of  iron  if  the 
tincture  of  steel  cannot  be  obtained;  black  brimstone,  >^oz.;  blue 
vitriol,  \$  oz.;  corrosive  sublimate,  \£  oz.;  nitric  acid,  1  drachm; 
copperas,  !^oz.;  mix  with  1'^  pints  rain  water,  and  bottle  for  use. 
This  is  to  he  applied  the  same  as  the  first.  It  causes  the  twist  of 
tin  barrel  to  be  visible  after  application,  a  quality  which  the  other 
liquid  does  not  possess. 

Browning  Compositions  for  Gun  Barrels.—!.  Blue  vitriol, 
4  oz.;  tincture  of  muriate  of  iron,  2  oz.;  water,  1  quart;  dissolve, 
and  acid  aquafortis  and  sweet  spirits  of  nitre,  of  each,  1  oz.  2. 
Blue  vitriol  and  sweet  spirits  of  nitre,  of  each,  1  oz. ;  aquafortis,  \f 
oz. ;  water,  1  pint.  To  be  used  in  the  same  manner  as  previously 
described  in  this  work. 

Varnish  and  Polish  for  Gun  Stocks.— Gum  shellac,  10  oz.; 
gum  sandarac,  1  oz.;  Venice  turpentine,  1  drachm;  98  per  cent, 
alcohol,  1  gallon;  shake  the  jug  occasionally  for  a  day  or  two,  and 
it  is  ready  for  use.  Apply  a  few  coats  of  this  to  your  gunstocks, 
polish  by  rubbing  smooth,  and  your  work  is  complete. 

Hardening  and  Pilling  for  Fire-proof  Safes.— Experience 
has  shown  that  the  fire  and  burglar  proof  diamond  cliill  for 
iron  or  steel,  described  in  another  part  of  this  work,  lias  no  supe- 
rior as  a  hardening  for  security  in  the  construction  of  safes;  and, 
as  a  non-conductor  of  heat,  we  would  recommend  a  filling  of  plas- 
ter of  Paris  or  alum. 

Tempering  Razors,  Cutlery,  Saws,  &c.— Razors  and  pen- 
knives are  too  frequently  hardened  without  the  removal  of  the  MM!O 
arising  from  the  forging.  Thii  -nracticf.,  whifh  i»  never  done  with 
tlw  best  works,  cannot  be  too  mwh  aeprecated.  The  blades  are  heated 
in  a  coke  or  charcoal  fire,  and  dipped  in  the  water  obliquely.  In 
tempering  razors,  they  are  laid  on  their  backs  upon  a  clean  fire, 
about  half  a  dozen  together,  and  they  are  removed  one  at  a  time, 
when  the  edges,  which  are  as  yet  thick,  come  down  to  a  pale  straw 
color.  Should  the  backs  accidentally  get  heated  beyond  the  straw- 
color,  the  blades  are  cooled  in  water,  but  not  otherwise.  Pen- 
blades  are  tempered  a  dozen  or  two  at  a  time,  on  a  plate  of  iron  or 
copper,  about  12  inches  long,  3  or  4  inches  wide,  and  about  }£  of  an 
inch  thick.  The  blades  are  arranged  close  together  on  their  backs, 
and  lean  at  an  angle  against  each  other.  As  they  come  down  to 
the  temper,  they  are  picked  out  \vitli  small  pliers  and  thrown  into 
water,  if  necessary;  other  blades  are  then  thrust  forward  from  the 
cooler  parts  of  the  plate  to  take  their  place.  Axes,  adzes,  cold 
clii-i'K  and  other  edge  tools,  in  which  the  total  bulk  is  considerable 
compared  with  the  part  to  be  hardened,  are  only  partially  dipped; 
they  are  afterwards  let  down  by  the  heat  of  the  remainder  of  the 
tool;  and,  when  the  color  indicative  of  the  temper  is  attained,  they 


190    RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL,  PURPOSES. 

are  entirely  quenched.  With  the  view  of  removing  the  loose 
scales,  or  the  oxidation  acquired  in  tin-  fin-,  some  workmen  rub  the 
objects  hastily  in  dry  salt  before  plunging  tliem  in  the  water,  in 
order  to  give  them  a  cleaner  and  brighter  face. 

Oil,  or  resinous  mixtures  of  oil,  tallow,  wax,  and  resin,  are  used 
for  many  thin  and  ela>tie  objects,  sucli  as  needles,  fi>hhooks,  steel- 
pens  and  springs,  which  require  a  milder  decree  of  hardness  than 
is  given  by  water.  Gunlock  springs  are  sometimes  t'rt  <l  in  oil  for 
a  considerable  time  over  a  tire,  in  an  iron  tray;  the  thick  parts  are 
then  sure  to  bjj  sufficiently  reduced,  and  the  thin  parts  do  not  be- 
come the  more  softened  from  the  continuance  of  the  blazing  heat. 

Saws  and  springs  are  generally  hardened  in  various  composition! 
of  oil,  suet,  wax,  etc.  The  saws  are  heated  in  long  furnaces,  and 
then  immersed  hori/.ontallv  and  edgeways  into  a  long  trough  con- 
taining the  composition.  rUtof  the  composition  is  'wiped  off  the 
saws  with  a  pie -e  of  leather,  when  they  are  removed  from  the 
trough,  and  heated  one  by  one,  until  the  grease  intlaines.  This  is 
called  "  bluziity  off."  The  composition  used  by  a  large  saw  manu- 
facturer U  2  Ibs.  suet,  and  '^  Ib.  of  beeswax,  to  every  gallon  of 
whale  oil';  these,  are  boiled  together,  and  will  serve  for  thin  works 
and  most  kinds  of  steel.  The  addition  of  black  resin,  about  1  Ib.  to 
each  gallon,  makes  it  serve  for  thicker  pieces,  and  for  those  it  re- 
fused to  harden  before;  but  resin  should  be  added  with  judgment, 
or  the  works  will  become  too  hard  and  brittle. 

Silversmith's  Stripping  Liquid. — Sulphuric  acid,  8  parts; 
nitre,  1  part.  Jse  to  re-cover  silver  on  old  plated  ware. 

To  Silver  Clock  Paces,  Etc.— Old  silver  lace,  %  oz.;  nitric 
acid,  1  oz.  Boil  them  over  a  gentle  lire  for  about  ~>  mfnutes  in  an 
earthen  pot.  After  the  silver  is  dissolved,  take  the  mixture  off,  and 
mix  it  in  a  pint  of  clean  water,  then  pour  it  into  another  vessel,  free 
from  sediment;  then  add  a  tablespoonl'ul  of  common  salt,  and  the 
silver  will  be  precipitated  in  the  form  of  a  white  powder  or  curd; 
pour  off  the  acid,  and  mix  the  curd  with  2  oz.  salt  of  tartar,  and  % 
oz.  whiting,  all  together,  and  it  is  ready  for  use.  To  USE. — Clean 
your  brass  or  copper  plate  with  rotten  stone  and  a  piece  of  old  hat; 
rub  it  with  salt  and  water  with  your  hand.  Then  take  a  little  or 
the  composition  on  your  finger,  and  rub  it  over  your  plate,  and  it 
will  firmly  adhere  and  completly  silver  it.  Wash  it  well  with  water. 
When  dry,  rub  it  with  a  clean  "rag,  and  varnish  with  this  VARNISH 
FOR  CLOCK-FACES:  Spirits  of  wine,  1  pt.;  divide  into  3  parts,  mix 
one  part  with  gum  mastic  in  a  bottle  by  itself;  1  part  spirits,  and  % 
oz.  sandarac  in  another  bottle;  and  1  part  spirits,  and  %  oz.  of 
whitest  gum  benjamin,  in  another  bottle;  mix  and  temper  to  your 
mind.  If  too  thin,  some,  mastic;  if  too  soft,  some  sandarac  or  ben- 
jamin. When  you  use  it,  warm  the  silvered  plate  before  the  fire, 
and,  with  a  flat  camel's  hair  pencil,  stroke  it  over  till  no  white 
streaks  appear,  and  this  will  preserve  the  silvering  for  many  years. 

"Watchmaker's  Drills.— Drills  of  the.  smallest  kind  are  heated 
in  the  blue  part  of  the  name  of  a  candle;  larger  drills  are  heated 
with  the  blow-pipe  flame,  applied  very  obliquely,  and  a  little  below 
the  point.  When  very  thin,  they  may  be  wliisked  in  the  air  to 


RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.     191 

cool  thorn;  but  they  are;  generally  thrust  into  the  tallow  of  a  candle 
or  the  oil  of  a  lamp.  They  are  temjK'ml  either  hy  their  own  heat, 
or  by  immersion  in  the  flame  below  the  point  of  the  tool. 

To  Reduce  Metallic  Oxides. — This  may  be  effected  by  the 
dry  and  the  moist  processes;  but  tlie  deoxidizing  agent  of  the  great- 
est value  to  the  metallurgist  is  coal  in  its  several  varieties,  and  the 
derivative  materials  yielded  by  its  combustion.  When  coal  is  burned 
in  a  furnace,  the  first  product  of  combustion  may  be  considered  to 
be  carbonic  acid  gas;  but  inasmuch  as  the  latter  is  readily  decom- 
posod  by  permeating  ignited  pieces  of  solid  carbon  (coke)  losing  a 
portion  of  its  oxygen,  and  becoming  carbonic  acid  gas,  we  may  say 
that  the  product*  of  the  combustion  of  coal  are,  firstly,  carbonic 
acid;  secondly,  carbonic  oxide  and  carbonic  acid;  and  lastly,  car- 
bonic oxide  alone.  The  latter,  in  combination  with  heat,  is  a  most 
powerful  deoxidizing  agent.  Were  it  not  for  the  production  in  fur- 
naces of  carbonic  oxide  gas — were  it  necessary  that  the  solid  car- 
bon of  the  coke  should  be  alone  the  deoxidizing  body" — then  it 
follows  that  every  particle  of  the  ore  to  be  reduced  must  be  brought 
into  intimate  contact  with  the  reducing  body;  a  process  involving 
more  care  and  trouble  than  are  compatible  with  large  metallurgic 
operations.  The  reducing  agent  being  a  gas,  there  is  no  longer  a 
necessity  for  that  intimate  mixture  of  fuel  and  ore  which  would 
otherwise  be  necessary.  Provided  that  the  gaseous  results  of  com- 
bustion are  placed  under  circumstances  of  readily  permeating  the 
ore,  the  necessities  of  practice  are  amply  subserved.  There  is  great 
difference  as  to  the  amount  of  heat  at  which  the  reduction  of  differ- 
ent metallic  oxides  can  be  effected.  The  oxides  of  lead,  bismuth, 
antimony,  nickel,  cobalt,  copper,  and  iron,  require  a  strong  red 
heat  in  the.  furnace,  whilst  the  oxides  of  manganese,  chromium,  tin, 
and  zinc,  do  not  lose  their  oxygen  until  h<  ad  d  to  whiteness. 

On  a  large  scale,  the  reduction  of  oxides  is  generally  effected  by 
mixing  charcoal,  together  with  the  oxide  to  be  reduced,  in  a  refrac- 


tory clay  crucible,  the  charcoal  furnishing  the  carbon  nece-s;u\  to 
the  proper  performance  of  the  work.  Some  use  a  cnicihle  thickly 
lined  with  charcoal,  putting  in  the  oxide  on  the  top  of  the  charcoal. 


It  is  necessary,  however,  when  using  the  crucible  and  charcoal,  to 
use  a  flux,  say  a  little  borax  in  powder,  stewed  on  the  mixture  to 
accelerate  the  reduction  of  the  oxide.  Tiie  borax  is  generally  the 
first  to  fuse,  and,  as  the  metal  is  eliminated,  seems  to  purify  and 
cleanse  it,  as  it  gathers  into  a  button  at  the  bottom  of  the  crucible. 
It  is  all  the  better  if  you  give  the  crucible  a  few  sharp  taps  when 
you  take  it  off  the  fire. 

Copper  Plates  or  Rods  may  be  covered  with  a  superficial  coat- 
ing of  brass  by  exposing  them  to  the /VMM!  given  off  bv  melted  zinc 
at  a  light  temperature.  The  coated  plates  or  rods  can  then  be  rolled 
into  thin  sheets;  or  drawn  into  wire. 

Solution  of  Copper  on  Zinc.— Dissolve  8  oz.  (troy)  cyanide 
of  potassium,  and  3  oz.  cyanide  of  copper  or  zinc,  in  1  gallon  of 
rainwater.  To  be  used  at  about  160°  F.,  with  a  compound  battery 
pf  3  to  12  cells. 

13 


192    RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

Brass  Solution.— Dissolve  1  Ib.  (troy)  cyanide  of  potassium,  2 
ozs.  cyanide  of  copper,  and  1  oz.  cyanide  of  zinc,  in  1  gal.  of  rain- 
water then  add  2  oz.  of  muriate  ammonia.  To  be  used  at  160° 
F  for  smooth  work,  with  a  compound  battery  of  from  3  to  12 
cells. 

Brassing  Iron.— Iron  ornaments  are  covered  with  copper  or 
brass  bv  properly  preparing  tin-  surface  so  as  to  remove  all  organic 
matter  which  would  prevent  adhesion  and  then  plunging  them  into 
melted  brass.  A  thin  coating  is  thus  spread  over  the  iron,  and  it 
admits  of  being  polished  or  burnished. 

To  Enamel  Cast  Iron  and  Hollow  "Ware.— Calcined  flints 
6  parts;  Cornish  stone  or  MMMtOtM  two  purls,  litharge  9  parts, 
borax  6  parts,  argillaceous  earth  1  part,  nitre  1  part,  calx  of  tin  6 
parts,  purified  potash  1  part.  2.  Calcined  flints  8  parts,  red  lead  8 
parts  borax  6  parts,  calx  of  tin  5  parts,  nitre  1  part.  3.  Potter's 
composition  12  parts,  borax  8  pails,  white  lead  10  parts,  nitre  2 
parts,  white  marble  calcined  1  part,  purified  potash  2  parts,  calx  of 
fin  5  parts.  4.  Calcined  flints  4  parts,  potter's  composition  1  part, 
nitre  2  parts,  borax  8  parts,  white  marble  calcined  1  part,  argilla- 
ceous earth  %  part,  calx  of  tin  2  parts.  Whichever  of  the  above 
compositions  is  taken  must  be  finely  powdered,  mixed  and  fused. 
The  vitreous  mass  is  to  be  ground  when  cold,  sifted,  and  levigated 
with  water;  it  is  then  made  into  a  pap  with  water,  or  gum-water. 
This  pap  is  smeared  or  brushed  over  the  interior  of  the  vessel, 
dried,  and  fused  with  a  proper  heat  in  a  muffle.  Clean  the  vessels 
perfectly  before  applying. 

Enameled  Cast  Iron.— Clean  and  brighten  the  ircn  before 
applying.  The  enamel  consists  of  two  coats— the  body  and  the 
glaze.  The  body  is  made  by  fusing  100  Ibs.  ground  flints,  75  of 
borax,  and  grinding  40  Ibs.  of  this  frit  with  5  Ibs.  of  potter's  clay, 
in  water,  till  it  is  brought  to  the  consistence  of  a  pap.  A  coat  of 
this  being  applied  and  dried,  but  not  hard,  the  glaze  powder  is 
sifted  over  it  This  consists  of  100  Ibs.  Cornish  stone  in  fine  pow- 
der, 117  of  borax,  35  of  soda  ash,  35  of  nitre,  35  of  sifted  slaked 
lime,  13  of  white  sand,  and  50  of  pounded  white  glass.  These  are 
all  fused  together;  the  frit  obtained  is  pulverized.  Of  this  powder, 
45  Ibs.  are  mixed  with  1  Ib.  of  soda  ash,  in  hot  water,  and  the  mix- 
ture dried  in  a  stove  is  the  glaze-powder.  After  sifting  this  over 
the  body-coat,  the  cast  iron  article,  is  put  into  a  stove,  kept  at  a 
temperature  of  about  212°,  to  dry  it  hard,  after  which  it  is  set  in  a 
muffle-kiln,  to  fuse  it  into  a  glaze.  The  inside  of  pipes  is  enamelled 
(after  being  cleaned)  by  pouring  the  above  body-composition 
through  them  while  the  pipe  is  being  turned  around  to 
insure  an  equal  coating;  after  the  body  has  become  set,  the 
glaze  pap  is  poured  in  in  like  manner.  The  pipe  is  finally  fired 
m  the  kiln. 

To  Enamel  Copper  and  other  Vessels.— Flint  glass  6  parts, 
borax  3  parts,  red  lead  1  part,  oxide  of  tiu  1  part.  Mix  all  to- 


RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    193 

gether,  frit,  grind  into  powder,  make  into  a  thin  paste  with  water, 
apply  with  a  brush  to  the  surface  of  the  vessels  (after  scaling  by 
he;it  and  cleaning  them"),  repeat  with  a  second  or  even  a  third 
coat,  afterwards  dry,  and  lastly  fuse  on  by  heat  of  an  enamelled 


Emery  "Wheels  for  Polishing.  —  Coarse  emery  powder  is 
mixed  with  about  half  its  weight  of  pulverized  Stourbridge  loam, 
and  a  little  water  or  other  liquid  to  make  a  thick  paste;  this  is 
pressed  into  a  metallic  mould  by  means  of  a  screw-press,  and,  after 
being  thoroughly  dried,  is  baked  or  burned  in  a  muffle  at  a  tempera- 
ture above  a  red,  and  below  a  white  heat.  This  forms  an  artifi- 
cial emery-stone,  which  cuts  very  greedily,  with  very  little  wear  to 
itself.  Unequalled  for  grinding  and  polishing  glass,  metals, 
enamels,  stoues,  &c. 

Refining  Gold  and  Silver.— The  art  of  assaying  gold  and 
silver  is  founded  upon  the  feeble  affinity  which  these  have  for 
oxygen  in  comparison  with  copper,  tin,  and  other  cheap  metals, 
anil  on  the  tendency  which  the  latter  metals  have  to  oxidize  rap- 
idly in  contact  with  lead  at  a  li'-Ji  temperature,  and  sink  with  it 
into  any  porous,  earthy  v«»ssel  in  a  thin,  glassy,  vitrified  mass. 
The  precious  metal  hayjfltf'previously  been  accurately  weighed  and 
prepared,  the  first  process  is  CUPELLATION.  The  muffle  with 
cupel  properly  arranged  on  the  "  muffle  plate,"  is  placed  in  the  fur- 
nace, and  the  charcoal  added,  and  lighted  at  the  top  by  means  of  a 
few  ignited  pieces  thrown  on  last.  After  the  cupels  have  been  ex- 
posed to  a  strong  white  heat  for  about  half  an  hour,  and  have  be- 
come white  hot,  the  lead  is  put  into  them  by  means  of  tongs.  As 
BOOH  as  this  becomes  bright  red  and  "circulating,"  as  it  is  called, 
the  specimen  for  assay,  wrapped  in  a  small  piece  of  paper  or  lead- 
foil,  is  added;  the  fire  is  now  kept  up  strongly  until  the  metal  en- 
ters the  lead  and  "  circulate*  "  well,  when  the  heat,  slightly  di- 
minished, is  so  regulated  that  the  assay  appears  convex  and  more 
glowing  than  the  cupel  itself,  whilst  the  "vndulationt"  circulate 
in  all  directions,  and  the  middle  of  the  metel  appears  smooth-with 
a  margin  of  litharge,  which  is  freely  absorbed  by  the  cupel.  When 
the  metal  becomes  bright  and  shining,  or,  in  the  technical  lan- 
guage, begins  to  "lighten,"  and  prismatic  hues  suddenly  flash 
across  the  globules,  and  undulate  and  cross  each  other,  followed  by 
the  metal  becoming  very  brilliant  and  clear,  and  at  length  bright 
and  solid  (called  the  brightening),  the  separation  is  ended,  and  the 
process  complete.  The  cupels  are  then  drawn  to  the  mouth  of  the 
"  muffle,"  and  allowed  to  cool  slowly.  When  quite  cold,  the  re- 
sulting "button,"  if  of  SILVER,  is  removed  by  the  "pliers"  or 
"tongs  "  from  the  cupels,  and  after  being  flattened  on  a  small  anvil 
of  polished  stxel,  with  a  polished  steel  hammer,  to  detach  adhering 
oxide  of  lead,  and  cleaned  with  a  small,  hard  brush,  is  very  atcu- 
ratdy  weighsd.  The  weight  is  that  of  pure  silver,  and  the  differ- 
ence between  the  weight  before  cupellation  and  that  of  the  pure 
r.ietal  represents  the  proportion  of  alloy  in  the  sample  examined. 
In  the  case  of  GOLD,  the  metal  has  next  to  undergo  the  operations 
of  QDAKTATION.  The  cupelled  sample  is  fused  with  three  times 


194    RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL,  PURPOSES. 

its  weight  of  pure  silver  (called  the  "witness,")  and  in  this  sfato 
may  be  easily  removed  by  PARTING.  The  alloy,  alter  quartation, 
is  hammered  or  rolled  out  into  a  thin  strip  or  leaf,  curled  into  a 
spiral  form,  and  boiled  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour  with  about  L"  :  t«>:{ 
ounces  of  nitric  acid  (specific  gravity,  l.:l);  and  the  fluid  being 
poured  olr,  it  is  again  boiled  in  a  similar  manner,  with  1^  to  2 
Ouncefl  more  nitric  arid  (sp.  gr.,  l.l.');  nftiT  which  tbe  gold  is  care- 
fully collected,  washed  in  pure  water,  and  dried.  When  the  ope- 
ration of  parting  is  skilfully  conducted,  the  acid  not  too  strong, 
the  metal  preserves  its  spiral  form;  otherwise  it  falls  into  Hakes  or 
powder.  The  second  boiling  is  termed  the  "  r.  ///•/*'."  The  loss 
of  \\vightby  parting  corresponds  to  the  quantity  of  SILVEU  origi- 
nally iu  the  specimen. 

For  Alloys  containing  Platinum,  which  usually  consist  of 
copp  T,  silver,  platinum,  and  gold,  the  method  of  assaying  is  as 
follows:  Tlu^  alloy  is  cupelled  in  the  usual  way.  the  kfeMOl  weight 
expresses  the  amount  of  <v>/w  r,  and  the  "button,"  made  into  a 
riband  and  treated  with  sulphuric  acid,  indicates  by  the  portion 
dissolved  that  also  of  the  xilotir  present.  By  submitting  the  resi- 
duum to  quartation,  the  platinum  becomes  soluble  in  nitric  acid. 
The  loss  after  digestion  in  this  menstruum  expresses  the  weight  of 
that  metal,  and  the  weight  of  the  portion  now  remaining  is  that  of 
pure  gold.  Gold  containing  PALLADIUM  may  be  assayed  in  the 
same  manner. 

Annealing. — This  consists  in  putting  the  pure  gold  into  a  small, 
porous  crucible,  or  cupel,  and  heating  it  to  redness  in  the  inutile. 
WEIGHING  must  be  done  with  the  utmost  accuracy.  The  weight  in 
grains  troy,  doubled  or  quadrupled  as  the  case  may  be,  give,  the 
number  of  earattjbu  of  the  alloy  examined,  without  calculation. 

According  to  the  OLD  FRENCH  METHOD  of  assaying  gold,  the  fol- 
lowing quantities  were  taken:  For  the  assay  pouiul,  12  gr. ;  fine 
silver,  SOgrs.;  lead,  108  grs.  These  having  been  cupelled  together, 
the  perfect  button  is  rolled  into  a  leaf  (1'^  by  r>  inches),  twisted  on 
a  quill,  and  submitted  to  parting  with  2J4  oz.  and  l]4.  oz.  of  nitric 
acid,  sp.  gr.,  1.16  (20°  Baume).  The  remainder  of  the  process  is 
similar  to  that  above  described. 

The  usual  weight  of  silver  taken  for  the  assay  pound,  when  the 
fineness  is  reckoned  in  lOOOths,  is  •_'•>  grs.,  evry  real  grain  of  which 
represents  50-1000ths  of  lineuess,  and  so  on  of  smaller  divisions. 

Enamelling  on  Gold  and  Copper.— The  basis  of  all  enamels 
is  a  highly  transparent  and  fusible  glass,  called  FRIT,  FLUX,  or 
PASTE,  which  readily  receives  a  color  on  the  addition  of  the  metal- 
lic oxides.  PREPARATION. — Red  lead,  16  parts  ;  calcined  borax,  3 
Krts;  pounded  flint  glass,  12  parts;  flints,  4  parts.  Fuse  jn  a 
•ssian  crucible  for  12  hours,  then  pour  it  out  into  water,  and 
reduce  it  to  powder  in  a  biscuit- ware  mortar.  The  following  direc- 
tions will  serve  to  show  how  the  coloring  preparations  are  made: 
BLACK  enamels  are  made  with  peroxide  of  manganese,  or  prot- 
oxide of  iron,  to  which  more  depth  of  color  is  given  with  a  little 
cobalt.  VIOLET  enamel  of  a  very  fine  hue  is  made  from  peroxyde 


RECEIPTS  FOB   MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    195 

of  manganese  in  small  qmntity  with  saline  or  alkaline  fluxes.  RED 
enamel  is  made,  fru-.ii  protoxide  of  copper.  Boil  a  solution  of  equal 
parts  of  sugar  an«l  a-.vtate  of  copper  in  four  parts  of  water.  The 
sugar  takes  possession  of  a  portion  of  the  cupreous  oxide,  and  re- 
du-vs  it  to  t'ae  protoxide;  when  it  may  be  precipitated  in  the 
form  of  a  granular  powder  of  a  brilliant  red.  Alter  about  two 
hours  of  moderate  boiling,  the  liquid  is  sot  aside  to  settle,  decanted 
off  the  precipitate,  which  is  washed  and  dried.  By  this  pure 
oxido  any  tint  may  be  obtained  from  red  to  orange  "by  adding  a 
greater  or  smaller  quantity  of  peroxide  of  iron.  The  oxide  and 
purple  of  cassius  are  likewise  employed  to  colored  enamel.  This 
composition  resists  a  strong  fire  very  well.  GUEEN  enamel  can  be 
produced  by  a  mixture  of  yellow  and  blue,  but  is  generally  obtained 
direct  from  the  oxide  of  copper,  or  better  still  with  the  oxide  of 
chrome,  which  last  will  resist  a  strong  heat  YELLOW.— Take  one 
part  of  whiti3  oxide  of  antimony,  with  from  one  to  three  parts  of 
whitit  lead,  one  of  alum,  and  one  of  sal  ammoniac.  Each  of  these 
substances  is  to  be  pulverized,  then  all  are  to  be  exactly  mixed, 
and  exposed  to  a  heat  adequate  to  decompose  the  sal  ammoniac. 
This  operation  is  judged  to  be  finished  when  the  yellow  color  is 
well  brought  out.  BLUE.— This  color  is  obtained  from  the  oxide 
of  cobalt,  or  some  of  its  combinations,  and  it  produces  it  with  such 
intensity  that  only  a  very  littlo  can  be  used  lest  the  shade  should 
pass  into  black.  A  WHITE  enamel  may  be  prepared  with  a  calcine 
formed  of  2  parts  of  tin  and  1  of  lead,  calcined  together:  of  this 
combined  oxide,  1  part  is  melted  with  two  parts  of  fine  crystal  and  a 
very  little  manganese,  all  previously  ground  together.  When  the 
fusion  is  complete,  the  vitreous  matter  is  to  be  poured  into  clear 
water,  and  the  frit  is  then  dried  and  melted  anew.  Repeat  the 
pouring  into  water  three  or  four  times,  to  insure  a  perfect  combi- 
nation. Screen  the  crucible  from  smoke  and  flame.  The  smallest 
portions  of  oxide  of  iron  or  copper  admitted  into  this  enamel  will 
destroy  its  value. 

The  artist  prepares  his  enamel  colors  bv  pounding  them  In  an 
agate  mortar,  with  an  agate  pestle,  and  grinding  them  on  an  agate 
slab,  with  oil  of  lavender  rendered  viscid  by  exposure  to  the  sun,  in 
a  shallow  vessel,  loosely  covered  with  gauze  or  glass.  He  should 
have  alongside  of  him  a  stove,  in  which  a  moderate  fire  is  kept  up, 
for  drying  his  work  whenever  the  fignres  are  finished.  It  is  then 
passed  through  the  muffle. 

Silver  Plating.— File  the  parts  which  are  to  receive  the  plate 
very  smooth;  then  apply  over  the  surface  the  muriate  of  zinc, 
which  is  made  by  dissolving  zinc  in  muriatic  acid:  now  hold  this 
part  over  a  dish  containing  hot  soft  solder,  and  with  a  swab  apply 
the  solder  to  the  part  to  which  it  will  adhere;  brush  off  all  super- 
fluous solder,  so  as  to  leave  the  surface  smooth;  you  will  now  take 
Xo.  2  fair  silver  plate,  of  the  right  size  to  cover  the  prepared  sur- 
face, and  lay  the  plate  upon  it,  and  rub  down  smooth  with  a  cloth 
moistened  with  oil;  then,  with  a  turned  soldering  iron,  pass  slowly 
over  all  the  surface  of  the  plate,  which  melts  the  solder  underneath 
it,  causing  the  plate  to  adhere  as  firmly  as  the  solder  does  to  the 
iron;  then  polish  the  surface,  and  finish  with  buckskin. 


196    RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

Electro  Gold  Plating.—  Take  a  $2.50  piece  of  gold,  and  put 
it  into  a  mixture  of  1  oz.  nitric,  and  4  oz.  muriatic  acid  (trlass  ves- 
sels only  are  to  be  used  in  this  work;)  when  it  is  all  cut,  dissohv  i.< 
oz.  of  sulphate  of  potasli  in  1  pint  of  pure  rain  water,  and  mix 
with  the  gold  solution,  stirring  well;  then  let  it  stand,  and  the  gold 
will  be  thrown  down;  then  pour  off  the  acid  fluid,  and  wash  the 
gold  in  two  or  three  waters,  or  until  no  acid  is  tasted  by  touching 
the 


tongue  to  the  gold.  Now  dissolve  1  oz.  of  cyanuret  of 
siuiu  iu  1  pint  of  pure  rain  water,  to  which  add  the  gold,  and  it  is 
ready  for  use.  Clean  the  article  to  be  plated  fiom  all  grease  and 
dirt,  with  whiting  and  a  good  brush;  if  there  are  cracks,  it  may  bo 
necessary  to  put  the  article  in  a  solution  of  caustic  potash;  at  all 
events  clean  it  perfectly;  then  suspend  it  in  the  cyanuret  of  gold 
solution  with  a  small  strip  of  zinc,  cut  about  the  width  of  a  com- 
mon knitting  needle,  hooking  the  top  over  a  stick  which  will  reach 
across  the  top  of  the  vessel  holding  the  solution.  If  the  zinc  is  too 
large,  the  deposit  will  be  made  so  fast  it  will  scale  off.  The  slower 
the  plating  goes  on  the  better,  and  this  is  arranged  by  the  size  of 
the  zinc  used.  When  not  in  use  keep  it  well  corked  and  out  of  the 
way  of  children,  for  it  is  very  poisonous. 

Electro  Silver  Plating  is  done  every  way  the  same  as  gold 
(using  coin,)  except  that  rock-salt  is  used  instead  of  the  cyanuret 
of  potassium,  to  hold  the  silver  in  solution  for  use,  and  wlien  it  is 
of  the  proper  strength  of  salt,  it  has  a  thick  curdy  appearance,  or 
you  can  add  salt  until  the  silver  will  deposit  on  the  article  to  bo 
plated,  which  is  all  that  is  required.  This  method  entails  no 
trouble  with  using  a  battery,  and  is  the  successful  result  of  a  long 
series  of  experiments  in  electro-plating. 

Elklngton'a  Patent  Gilding.  —  Fine  gold,  5  07.  (troy.)  nirro- 
muriatic  acid,  52  oz.  (avoirdupois;)  dissolve  by  heat,  and'continue 
the  heat  until  red  or  yellow  vapors  cease  to  be  evolved;  decant  the 
clear  liquor  into  a  suitable  vessel;  add  distilled  water,  4  gallons; 
pure  bi-carbonate  of  potassa,  20  Ibs.;  and  boil  for  2  hours.  N.  B. 
The  nitro-muriatic  acid  is  made  with  purt  nitric  acid  (sp.  gr.  1.4.">.) 
21  oz.;  pure  muriatic  acid  (sp.  gr.  1.15,)  17  oz.;  and  distilled  water, 
14  oz. 

The  articles,  after  being  perfectly  cleaned  from  scale  or  grease, 
and  receiving  a  proper  face,  are  to  be  suspended  on  wires,  dipped 
into  the  liquid  boiliny  hot,  and  moved  about  therein,  when,  in  from 
a  few  seconds  to  a  minute,  depending  on  the  newness  and  strength 
of  the  liquid,  the  requisite  coating  of  gold  will  be  deposited  on 
them.  By  a  little  practice  the  time  to  withdraw  the  articles  is 
readily  known;  the.  duration  of  the  immersion  required  to  produce 
any  given  effect  gradually  increases  as  the  liquid  weakens  by  use. 
When  properly  gilded,  the  articles  are  withdrawn  from  the  solution 
of  gold,  washed  in  clean  water  and  dried;  after  which  they  un- 
dergo the  usual  operation  of  coloring,  &c. 

A  "dead  gold"  appfnnm^\  is  produced  by  the  application  to  the 
articles  of  a  weak  solution  of  nitrttt:',  of  mermtrjf  previously  to  the 
immersion  in  the  gilding  liquor,  or  the  deadening  may  be  given  by 
applying  a  solution  of  the  nitrate  to  the  newly  gilded  surface,  and 
then  expelling  the  mercury  by  heat. 


RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    197 

Gold  Silvering  on  Metals.-Mix  1  part  of  chloride  of  silver 
witli  :>  parts  of  pearlsish,  l]4  parts  common  salt,  and  1  part  whiting; 
and  well  nil)  tin-  mixture  on  the  surface  of  brass  or  copper,  (pre- 
viously well  eleuiii'd,)  liy  mean-,  of  ;i  pieee  of  soft  leather,  or  a 
cork  noMened  with  water,  and  dipped  in  the  powder.  When 
pn>)x'rly  silvered,  the  metal  should  be  well  washed  in  hot  water, 
slightly  alkalized,  then  wiped  dry. 

To  Heighten  the  Color  of  Yellow  Gold.— Saltpetre,  6  oz.: 
green  copperas,  2  oz.:  white  vitriol  and  alnin,  of  each,  1  oz.  If 
wanted  redder,  a  small  quantity  of  blue  vitriol  must  be  added. 

For  Green  Gold.— Saltpetre,  1  oz.  10  dwts.;  sal  ammoniac, 
1  oz.  4  d\vts.;  Roman  vitriol,  1  oz.  4  dwts.;  verdigris,  18  dwts. 

For  Red  Gold.— To  4  oz.  melted  yellow  wax,  add,  In  fine  pow- 
der, 1J^  oz.  of  red  ochre;  1!^  oz.  verdigris,  calcined  till  it  yields  no 
fumes;  and  %  oz.  of  calcined  borax.  Mix  them  well  together. 
Dissolve  either  of  above  mixtures  in  water,  as  the  color  is  wanted, 
and  use  as  required. 

Coloring  of  Gliding.— Defective  colored  gilding  mny  also  be 
Improved  by  the  help  of  the  following  mixture:  Nitrate  of  potash, 
3oz.;  alum,  \\$  oz.;  sulphate  of  zinc,  1M  oz.;  common  salt,  1U  oz. 
These  ingredients  are  to  l>e  put  into  a  small  quantity  of  water  to 
form  a  sort  of  paste,  which  is  put  upon  the  articles  to  be  colored; 
they  are  then  placed  upon  an  iron  plate  over  a  clear  fire,  so  that 
they  will  attain  nearly  to  a  black  heat,  when  they  are  suddenly 
plunged  into  cold  water;  this  gives  them  a  beautiful  high  color. 
Different  hues  may  be  had  by  a  variation  in  the  mixture. 

Gold  is  taken  from  the  surface  of  silver  bv  spreading  over  It 
a  paste  made  of  powdered  sal-ammoniac,  with  aqua  fort  is,  and 
heating  it  till  the  matter  smokes,  and  it  is  nearly  dry;  when  the 
gold  may  be  separated  by  rubbing  it  with  a  scratch  brush. 

Moulds  and  Dies. — Copper,  zinc,  and  silver  in  equal  propor- 
tions, melt  together  under  a  coat  of  powdered  charcoal,  and  mould 
Into  the  form  you  desire.  Bring  them  to  nearly  a  white  heat,  and 
lay  on  the  thine;  you  would  take  the  impression  of,  press  with  suffi- 
cient force,  and  you  will  get  a  perfect  and  beautiful  impression. 

Polishing  Powder  for  Gold  and  Silver.— Rock  alum  (burnt 
and  finely  po \vderetl,)  5  parts;  levigated  chalk,  Ipart  Mix;  apply 
with  a  dry  brush. 

Silver  Plating  Fluid.— Dissolve  1  ounce  of  nitrate  of  silver  In 
crystal,  in  12  ounces  of  soft  water;  then  dissolve  in  the  water  2  oz. 
cyanuret  of  potash;  shake  the  whole  together,  and  let  it  stand  till 


198    RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

it  becomes  cl-ar.  Have  ready  some  half-ounce  vi;iK  and  fill  half 
full  of  i'aris  white,  or  fin.'  whiting;  and  then  fill  up  the  bottles 
with  the  liquor,  and  it  is  ready  for  use.  The  whiting  does  not  in- 
crease the  coating  power;  it  only  helps  to  clean  the  articles,  and 
save  the  silver  fluid,  by  half  filling  the  bottles. 

To  Temper  Gravers  and  Drills.—  TVhen  the  graver  or  drill  is 
too  hard,  which  may  be  known  by  tin-  frequent  breaking  of  the 
point,  temper  a-;  follows:  Heat  a  poker  red  hot,  and  hold  the 
graver  to  it  within  an  inch  of  the  point,  waving  it  to  and  fro  till 
the  steel  changes  to  a  light  straw  color;  then  put  the  point  into  oil 
to  cool,  or  hold  the  graver  close  to  the  llame  of  a  candle  till  it  be  of  the 
same  color,  and  cool  in  tallow;  but  be  careful  either  way  not  to  hold 
it  too  long,  for  then  it  will  be  too  soft,  in  which  case  the  point  will 
be  blue,  and  nin^t.  be  broken  off.  and  whetted  and  tempered  anew. 
For  jewellers'  drills,  no  better  tempering  liquid  can  be  got  than  the 
first-named  liquid  under  the  blacksmiths'  department,  which  see. 

Jeweler's  Armenian  Cement.—  Isinglass  soaked  in  water  and 
dissolved  in  spirit,  L'  ox.  (thick);  dissolve  in  this  10  grains  of  very 
pale  gum  ammonia  (in  tears)  by  rubbing  them  together:  then  add 
t>  large  tears  of  gum  mastic,  di^-olved  in  the  l--a-t  possible  quantity 
of  rectified  spirit.  When  carefully  made,  this  cement  resists  mois- 
ture and  dries  colorless.  Keep  in  a  closely  stopped  vial. 

Jeweler's  Turkish  Cement.—  Put  Into  a  bottle  2  oz.  of  isinglass 

d   1  «i/..  of  the  best  gum  arable;   cover  them  with  proof  spirits, 
rk  loosely,  and  place  the  bottle  in  a  vessel  of  water,  and  hoil  it 


and 
cor 
till 
known. 


..  , 

cork  loosely,  and  place  the  bottle  in  a  vessel  of  water,  and  hoil  it 
till  a  thorough  solution  is  effected;  then  strain  for  use;  host  cement 
known. 


Reviver  of  Old  Jewelry.  —  Dissolve  sal-ammoniac  in  urine, 
and  put  the  jewelry  in  it.  for  a  short,  time;  tin  n  take  it  out,  and  rub 
with  chamois  leather,  and  it  will  appear  equal  to  new. 

To  Recover  Gold  From  Gilt  Metal.—  Take   a   solution    of 

borax  water,  apply  to  the  pit  surface,  and  sprinkle  over  it  some, 
finely  powdered  sulphur;  make  the  article  red  hot,  and  quench  it 
in  water;  then  scrape  off  the  gold,  and  recover  it  by  means  of  lead. 

To   Separate   Gold  and   Silver  from  Lace,    &c.  —  Cut  in 

pieces  the  gold  or  silver  lace,  tie  it  tightly,  and  boil  it  in  soap  lye, 
till  the  size  appears  diminished;  take  the  cloth  out  of  the  liquid, 
and,  after  repeated  rinsings  in  cold  water,  beat  it  with  a  mallet  to 
draw  out  all  the  alkali.  Open  the  linen,  and  the  pure  metal  will  be 
found  in  ah1  its  beauty. 

Door  Plates  —  TO  MAKF.--('ut  your  glass  the  right  size,  and 
make  it  perfectly  clean  with  alcohol  or  soap;  then  cut  'a  strip  of  tin- 
foil sufficiently  long  and  wide  for  the  name,  and  with  a  piece  of 


RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.     199 

Ivory  or  other  burnisher  rub  it  length-wise  to  innko  it  smooth ;  now 
Wat  the  glass  with  tin-  tongue  (as  saliva  is  the  best  sticking  sub 
staive,)  or  if  th-  glass  is  very  large,  use  a  weak  solution  of  gum 
arable,  or  the  white  of  an  egg  in  half  a  pint  of  water,  and  lay  on 
the  foil,  rubbing  it  down  to  Hie  glass  with  a  bit  of  cloth,  then  also 
with  the  burnisher;  the  more  it  is  burnished  the  better  will  it  look; 
now  mark  the  width  on  the  foil  which  is  to  be  the  height  of  the 
letter,  and  put  on  a  straight  edge,  and  hold  it  firmly  to  the  foil,  and 
with  a  sharp  knife  out  the  foil,  and  take  off  the  superfluous  edges: 
then  cither  lay  out  the,  letters  on  the  back  of  the  foil  (so  they  shall 
read  correctly  on  the  front')  by  your  own  judgment  or  by  moans  of 
pattern  letters,  which  can  be  purchased  for  that  purpose;  cut  with 
the  knife,  carefully  holding  down  the  pattern  or  straight  edge, 
whichever  you  use;  then  rub  down  the  edge  of  all  the  letters  with 
the  back  of'the  knife,  or  edge  of  the  burnisher,  which  prevents  the 
black  paint  or  japan  which  you  next  put  over  the  bark  of  the  plate 
fro:u  getting  under  the  foil;  having  put  a  line  above  and  one  below 
the  name,  or  a  border  around  the  whole  plate,  or  not  as  you  bar- 
gain for  the  job.  The  Japan  is  made  by  dissolving  asnhaltum  in 
just  enough  turpentine  to  cut  it  (see  "Asphaltum  Vamisn;")  apply 
with  a  brush,  as  other  paint,  over  the  back  of  the  letters,  and  over 
the  glass  forming  a  back  ground.  This  is  used  on  the  iron  plate  of  the 
frame,  also  putting  it  on  when  the  plate  is  a  little  hot;  and,  as  soon 
as  it  cools,  it  is  dry.  A  little  lamp-black  may  be  rubbed  into  it  If 
you  desire  it  any  blacker  than  it  is  without  it. 


Etching  on  Glass.—  Druggist  bottles,  bar-tumblers,  signs, 
and  glassware  of  every  description,  can  be  lettered  in  a  beautiful 
style  of  art,  by  simply  giving  the  article  to  be  engraved,  or  etched, 
a  thin  coat  of  the  engraver's  varnish  (see  next  receipt),  and  the 
application  of  fluoric  acid.  Before  doing  so,  the  glass  must  be 
thoroughly  cleaned  and  heated,  so  that  it  can  hardly  be  held.  The 
varnish  is  th'-n  to  he  applied  lightlv  over,  and  made  smooth  by 
dabbing  it  with  a  small  ball  of  silk,  filled  with  cotton.  When  dry 
and  even,  the  lines  may  be  traced  on  it  bv  a  sharp  steel,  cutting 
clear  through  the  varnish  to  the  glass  The  varnish  must  be  re- 
moved clean  from  each  letter,  otherwise  it  will  be  an  imperfect  job. 
When  all  is  ready,  pour  on  or  apply  the  fluoric  acid  with  a  feather, 
filling  each  letter.  Let  it  remain  until  it  etches  to  the  required 
depth,  tlien  wash  off  with  water,  and  remove  the  varnish. 


Etching  Varnish.— Take  of  virgin  wax  and  asphalhim  each 
2  oz.;  of  black  pitch  and   Burgundy  pitch,  each  %  oz.;  melt  the 

wax  and  pitch  in  a  new  earthenware  glazed  pot,  and  add  to  them, 
bv  degrees,  the  asnhaltum,  finely  ]x>wdered.  Let  the  whole  boil, 
Simmering;  gradually,  till  such  time  as  that,  taking  a  drop  upon  a 

Elate,  it  will  break  when  it  is  cold,  on  landing  it  double  two  or  three 
mes  betwixt  the  fingers.  The  varnish,  being  then  boiled  enough, 
must  be  tak'Mioff  th"  fire,  and,  after  it  eools  a  little,  must  be  poured 
into  warm  water  that  it  may  work  the  more  easily  with  the  hands, 
so  as  to  be  formed  into  balls,  which  must  be  kneaded,  and  put  into 
a  piece  of  taffety  for  use. 


200    RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

Fluoric  Acid,  to  Make  for  Etching  Purposes.  —  You 
can  make  your  own  fluoric  (sometimes  called  hydro-fluoric)  arid, 
by  getting  tin'  ihior  or  Derbyshire  spar,  pulverizing  it,  ami  putting 
all  of  it  into  sulphuric  acid  which  ihe  acid  will  cut  or  di-solve. 
Inasmuch  as  lluoric  acid  is  destructive  to  glass,  it  cannot  he  k--pt 
iu  comiiiou  bottles,  but  must  be  kept  iu  lead  or  gutta  percha  bottles. 

Glass-Grinding    for    Signs,  Shades,    Etc.— Aftrr  you  have 

etched  a  name  or  other  design  upon  uncoloivd  ulass,  and  wish  to 
liave  it  show  off  to  a  better  advantage  by  permitting  the  light  to 
pass  only  through  the  letters,  you  can  do  so  by  taking  a  piece 
of  Hat  brass  sufficiently  large  not  to  dip  into  the  letters,  but  pass 
over  th-.'in  when  gliding  upon  the  surface  of  the  glass  ;  then,  with 
Hour  of  emery,  and  keeping  it  wet,  you  can  grind  the  whole  surface, 
very  quickly,  to  look  like  the  ground  glass  globes  often  seen  upon 
lamps,  except  the  letter,  which  is  eaten  below  the  general  surface. 

Gold  and  Silver  Ink.— The  metal  leaf  is  ground  with  honey 
until  of  a  tine  powder:  it  is  then  washed  to  remove  the  honey,  and 
the  powder  is  mixed  with  gum  water  lor  use. 

Gold  Lustre  for  Stoneware,  China,  Etc.— Gold,  (5  parts; 
aquaregia.  '*>  parts.  Dissolve,  then  add  tin,  1  part;  next  add  bal- 
sam of  sulphur,  .'{  parts;  oil  of  turpentine,  1  part.  Mix  gradually 
into  a  mortar,  and  rub  it  until  the  mixture  becomes  hard  ;  then  adii 
oil  of  turp  Mitine,  4  parts.  It  is  then  to  be  applied  to  a  ground  pre- 
pared lor  the  purpose. 

Gilding    China    and    Glass. — Powdered   pold  is  mixed  with 

borax  and  gum  water,  and  the  solution  applied  with  a  camel-hair 
pencil.  Heat  is  then  applied  by  a  stove  until  the  borax  fuses,  when 
the  gold  is  fixed  and  afterwards  burnished. 

Glass  Staining. — The  following  colors,  after  having  been  pre- 
pared, and  rubbed  upon  a  plate  of  ground-glass,  with  the  spirit  of 
turpentine  or  lavender,  thickened  in  the  air,  are  applied  with  a  hair- 
pencil.  IJefore  using  them,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  try  them  on 
small  pieces  of  glas>,  and  expose  them  to  the  fire,  to  ascertain  if  the 
desired  tone  of  color  is  produced.  The  artist  must  be  guided  by 
these  proof-pieces  in  using  his  colors.  The  glass  proper  for  receiv- 
tng  these  pigments  should  be  colorless,  uniform  and  difficult  effu- 
sion. A  design  must  be  drawn  on  paper,  and  placed  beneath  the 
plate  of  glass.  The  upper  side  of  the  glass,  being  sponged  over 
with  gum-water,  affords,  when  dry,  a  surface  proper  for  receiving 
the  colors  without  the  risk  of  their  running  irregularly,  a ;  they 
would  otherwise  do  on  the  slippery  glass.  The  artist  draws  on  the 
plate  (usually  in  black),  with  a  fine  pencil,  all  the  traces  which 
mark  the  great  outlines  or  shades  of  the  figures.  Afterwards,  when 
it  is  dry,  the  vitrifying  colors  are  laid  on  by  means  of  larger  hair- 
pencils;  their  selection  being  regulated  by  the  burnt  specimen-tints 
above  mentioned.  The  following  are«Q  fast  colors,  which  do  not 
run,  except  the  yellow,  which  must,  therefore ,  be  laid  on  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  glass.  The  preparations  being  all  laid  on,  the  glass 
is  ready  for  being  tired  in  a  muffle,  in  order  to  fix  and  bring  out  the 
proper  colors.  The  muffle  must  be  made  of  very  refractory  fire- 


RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    201 

clay,  flat  at  Its  bottom,  and  only  five  or  six  Inches  high,  with  a 
strong,  arched  roof,  and  close  on  all  sides,  to  exclude  smoke  and 
flame.  On  the  bottom,  a  smooth  bed  of  sifted  lime,  freed  from 
water,  about  half  an  inch  thick,  must  be  prepared  for  receiving  the 
glass.  Sometimes,  several  plates  of  glass  are  laid  over  each  other, 
with  a  layer  of  lime-powder  between  each.  The  firo  is  now  lighted, 
and  very'  gradually  raised,  lest  the  glass  should  be  broken;  then 
keep  it  at  a  full  heat  for  three  or  four  hours,  more  or  less,  according 
to  the  indications  of  the  trial  slips;  the  yellow  coloring  being  princi- 
pally watched,  it  furnishing  the  best  criterion  of  the  state  of  the 
others.  When  all  is  right,  let  the  fire  die  out,  so  as  to  anneal  the 
glass. 

Stained-Glass  Pigments.— No.  1.  Flesh  color.—  Red  lead,  1  oz.; 
red  enamel  (Venetian  glass  enamel,  from  alum  and  copperas  cal- 
cined together):  grind  them  to  a  fine  powder,  and  work  this  up 
with  alcohol  upon  a  hard  stone.  When  slightly  baked,  this  pro- 
duces a  fine  flesh  color. 

No.  2.  BLACK  COLOR.— Take  14^  07.  of  smithy  scales  of  Iron;  mix 
them  with  -'  or.  of  white  glass;  antimony  1  oz.;  manganese,  ^  oz.: 
pound  and  grind  these  ingredients  together,  with  strong  vinegar. 

No.  3.  BROWN  COLOR. — White  glass  or  enamel,  1  oz.;  good  man- 
ganese, %  oz. :  grind  together. 

No.  4.  RED,  ROSE  AND  BROWN  COLORS  are  made  from  peroxide 
of  iron,  prepared  by  nitric  acid.  The  flux  consists  of  borax,  sand 
and  minium,  in  small  quantities. 

RED  COLOR  may  likewise  be  obtained  from  1  oz.  of  red  chalk, 
pounded,  mixed  with  2  oz.  of  white,  hard  enamel,  and  a  little  per- 
oxide of  copper. 

A  RED  may  also  be  composed  of  rust  of  iron,  glass  of  antimony, 
yellow  glass  of  lead,  surh  as  is  used  by  potters  (or  litharge,)  each 
in  equal  quantities;  to  wh'n-h  a  little  s'ulphuret  of  silver  is  added. 
This  composition,  well  ground,  produces  a  very  fine  red  color  on 
glass. 

No.  5.  GREEN.— 2  oz.  of  brass,  calcined  into  an  oxide;  2oz.;  of 
minium,  and  8  oz.  of  white  sand:  reduce  them  to  a  fine  powder, 
which  is  to  be  enclosed  in  a  well-luted  crucible,  and  heated  strongly 
in  an  air-furnace  for  an  hour.  When  the  mixture  is  cold,  grind  it 
in  a  brass  mortar.  Green  may,  however,  be  advantageously  pro- 
duced, by  a  yellow  on  one  side,  and  a  blue  on  the  other.  Oxide  of 
chrome  has  been  also  employed  to  stain  glass  green. 

No.  6.  A  FINE  YELLOW  STATN.— Take  fine  silver,  laminated  thin, 
dissolve  in  nitric  acid,  dilute  with  abundance  of  water,  ami  precipi- 
tate with  solution  of  sea-salt;  mix  this  chloride  of  silver  in  a  dry 
powder,  with  three  times  its  weight  of  pipe-clay,  well  burnt  and 
pounded.  The  back  of  the  glass  pane  is  to  be  "painted  with  this 
powder;  for;  when  painted  on  the  face,  it  is  apt  to  run  into  the  other 
colors. 


202    KECETPTS    FOTC   MECHANICAL   PURPOSES. 

A  PALE  YELLOW  can  be  made  by  mixing  sulphurot  of  silver  with 
glass  of  antimony  and  yellow  ochre,  previously  calcined  t>  ;:  ivd- 
brown  tint,  Work  all  these  powders  together,  and  paint  (in  the 
back  of  the  glass.  Or  silver  /• ';////"•,  melt  'd  with  sulphur,  and  ula  ;s 
of  antimony,  thrown  into  cold  water,  and  afterwards  ground  to 
powder,  afford  a  yellow. 

A  PALE  YELLOW  may  be  made  with  the  powder  resulting  from 
brass,  sulphur  and  glass  <>f  antimony,  calcin*  d  together  in  a  cruci- 
ble till  they  cease  to  siuoke,  aiid  then  mixed  with  a  little  burnt  ochre. 

THE  FrNE  YELLOW  of  M".  Meraud  is  prepared  from  chloride  of 
silver,  (ixide  of  /inc,  and  rust  of  iron.  This  mixture,  simply 
ground,  is  applied  on  the  glass. 

ORANGE  COLOR.— Take  1  part  of  silver-powder,  as  precipitated 
from  the  nitrate  of  that  metal,  by  plates  of  cupper,  and  washed; 
mix  with  1  part  of  red  ochre,  and  1  of  yellow,  liy  caivful  tritura- 
tion;  grind  into  a  thin  pap,  with  oil  of  turpentine  or  lavender;  apply 
this  with  a  brush,  and  burn  In. 

Silvering  Locking-Glasses  with  Pure  Silver.— Prepare  a 
mixture  of  :5  grs.  °>  ammonia,  (>  >  grs.  nitrate  of  silver,  90  minims  of 
spirits  of  wine,  90  minims  of  water;  when  the  nitrate  of  silver  is 
dissolved,  filter  the  liquid,  and  add  a  small 
(15  grs.,)  dissolved  in  \y*  oz. 
Put  the  glass  into  this  mixture,  having 

nlsh,  gum,  or  some  substance  to  prevent  the  silver  being  attached 
to  it.  Let  It  remain  for  a  few  days,  and  yon  have  a  most  elegant 
looking-glass;  yet  it  is  far  more  costly  than  the  quicksilver. 


and  add  a  small  quantity  of  sugar 
of  water  and  \%  oz.  spirits  of  wine, 
re,  having  one  side  covered  with  var- 


Another  Method.— A  sheet,  of  tin-foil  corresponding  to  the  size 
of  the  plate  of  glass  is  evenly  spread  on  a  perfectly  smooth  and 
solid  marble  table,  and  every  wrinkle  on  its  surface  is  carefully 
rubbed  down  with  a  brush;  a  portion  of  mercury  is  then  poured 
on,  and  rubbed  over  the  foil  with  a  clean  piece  of  soft  woolen  stuff, 
after  which,  two  rules  are  applied  to  the  edges  and  mercury  poured 
on  to  the  depth  Of  a  crown  piece;  when  any  oxide  on  the  surface- 
is  carefully  removed,  and  the  sheet  of  glMB,  perfectly  clean  and 
dry,  is  slid  along  over  the  surface  of  the  liquid  metal,  so  that  no 
air,  dirt,  or  oxide  can  possibly  either  remain  or  get  between  them. 
When  the  glass  has  arrived  at  its  proper  position,  gentle  pressure 
is  applied,  and  the  table  sloped  a  little  to  carry  off  the  waste  mer- 
cury; after  which  it  is  covered  with  flannel,  and  loaded  with  heavy 
weights;  in  twenty-four  hours,  it  is  removed  to  another  table,  and 
further  slanted,  and  this  position  is  progressively  increased  during 
a  month  till  it  becomes  perpendicular. 

Porcelain  Colors. — The  following  are  some  of  the  colors  used 

in  the  celebrat'd  poivehrn  manufactory  of  S  -vres.  and  the  pro- 
portions in  which  they  are  compounded.  Thouch  intended  for 
porcelain  painting,  nearly  all  are  applicable  to  painting  on  class. 
Flux  No.  1  minium  or  red  lead,  :$  parts;  white  sand,  washed,  1 
part.  This  mixture  is  melted,  by  which  it  is  converted  into  a 


RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.     203 

greenish-colored  glass.  Flux  No.  2.  GRAY  FLUX.— Of  No.  1,  8  parts; 
In  ••!  !>'>r:ix  in  powder,  1  ])art;  this  mixture,  is  melted.  Flux  No.  3. 
Fou  (\\UMINKS  AND  OREKXS.— Melt  together  fused  borax,  5  parts; 
calcined  Hint,  3  parts;  pure  minium,  1  part.  No.  1.  INDIGO  BUTE. 
— Oxide  of  cobalt,  1  part;  flux  No.  3,  2  parts.  DEEP  AZURE  BLUE. 
— Oxide  of  cobalt,  1  part;  oxide  of  zinc,  2  parts;  flux  No.  3,  5  parts; 
No.  2.  EMERALD  GREEN.— Oxide  of  copper,  1  part;  nntimonic  acid, 
10  parts;  flux  No.  1,  30  parts;  pulverize  together,  and  melt.  No.  3. 
GRASS  GUI: i :x.— (liven  oxide  of  chromium,  1  part;  flux  No.  3,  3 
parts;  triturate  and  melt  No.  4.  YELLOW. — Antimonic  acid,  1 
part;  subsulphate  of  the  peroxyde  of  iron,  8  parts;  oxide  of  zinc,  4 
parts;  flux  No.  1,36  parts;  rub'together,  and  melt;  if  this  color  is 
too  deep,  the  salt  of  iron  is  diminished.  No.  5.  FIXED  YELLOW 
FOR  TOUCHES. — No.  4,  1  part;  white,  enamel  of  commerce,  2  parts; 
HP  It  and  pour  out;  if  not  sufficiently  fixed,  a  little  sand  may  be 
added.  No.  6.  DEEP  NANKIN  YELIX>W. — Subsulphate  of  iron,  1 
part;  oxide  of  zinc.  2  parts;  flux  No.  2.  8  parts:  triturate  without 
melting.  No.  7.  DEEP  RED.— Subsulphate  of  iron,  calcined  in  a 
muffle  until  it  becomes  of  a  beautiful  capucine  red,  1  part;  flux  No. 
2,  3  parts;  mix  without  melting.  No.  8.  LIVER  BROWN. — Oxide  of 
Iron  made  of  red  brown,  and  mixed  with  3  times  its  weight  of  flux. 
No.  2;  a  tenth  of  sienna  earth  is  added  to  it,  if  it  is  not  deep  enough. 
No.  9.  WHITE.— The  white  enamel  of  commerce,  in  cakes.  No.  10. 
DEEP  BLACK.— Oxide  of  cobalt,  2  parts;  copper,  2  parts;  oxide  of 
manganese,  1  part;  flux  No.  1,  6  parts;  fused  borax,  %  part;  melt, 
and  add  oxide  of  manganese,  1  part;  oxide  of  copper,  2  parts; 
triturate  without  melting. 

THE  APPLICATION  —Follow  the  general  directions  given  in 
another  part  of  this  work,  in  relation  to  staining  glass. 

Glass  and  Porcelain  Gliding.— Dissolve  in  boiled  linseed  oil  an 
equal  weight  either  of  copal  or  amber;  add  as  much  oil  of  turpen- 
tine as  will  enable  you  to  apply  the  compound  or  size  thus  formed, 
as  thin  as  possible,  to  the  parts  of  the  glass  intended  to  be  gilt. 
The  glass  is  to  be  placed  in  a  stove  till  it  will  almost  burn  the  fingers 
when  handled;  at  this  temperature  the  size  becomes  adhesive,  and 
a  piece  of  gold-leaf,  applied  in  the  usual  way,  will  immediately 
stick.  Sweep  off  the  superfluous  portions  of  the  leaf,  and  when 

?uite  cold  it  may  be  burnished;  taking  care  to  interpose  a  piece  of 
ndia  paper  between  the  gold  and  the  burnisher.    See  another  pro- 
cess in  a  previous  part  of  this  work. 

Soluble  Glass.— 1 .  Silica,  1  part;  carbonate  of  soda,  2  parts;  fuse 
together.  2.  Carbonate  of  soda,  (dry.)  r.l  parts;  dry  carbonate  of 
potassa,  70  parts;  silica,  l!>2  parts;  soluble  in  boiling  water,  yielding 
a  fine  transparent,  semi-elastic  varnish.  3.  Carbonate  of  potassa, 
(dry,)  10  parts;  powdered  quartz  for  sand,  free  from  iron  or 
alumina,)  15  parts; charcoal,  1  part;  all  fused  together.  Soluble  in 
5  or  6  times  its  weight  of  oottiiig  water.  The  filtered  solution 
evaportaed  to  dry  ness' yields  a  transparent  glass,  permanent  in  the 
air. 


204    RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

To  Drill  and  Ornament  Glass.— Glass  can  ho  easily  drilled 
by  a  steel  drill,  baldened  but  not  drawn,  and  driven  at  a  high 
velocity.  Ihilis  of  any  size,  from  the  l<3th  of  an  inch  upwards,  can 
be  drilled,  by  using  spirits  of  turpentine  as  a  dip;  and,  easier  still, 
by  using  camphor  with  the  turpentine.  Do  not  press  the  glass 
very  hard  against  the  drill.  If  you  require  to  ornament  glass  by 
turning  in  a  lathe,  use  a  good  mill  file  and  the  turpentine  and  cam- 
phor drip,  and  you  will  find  it  an  easy  matter  to  produce  any  shape 
you  choose. 

Gilding  Glass  Signs,  &c.— Cut  a  piece  of  thin  paper  to  the  size 
of  yourgIMB,  draw  out  your  design  correctly  in  black  lead-pencil 
on  the  paper,  then  prick  through  the  outline  of  the  letters  with  a 
fine  needle,  tie  up  a  little  dry  white  lead  in  a  piece  of  ra<_r;  this  is  a 

n  nee-bag.  1'l.uv  your  de.->iurn  upon  the  glass,  right  side  up,  dust 
rith  the  pounce-bag;  and,  after  taking  the  paper  off,  the  de>ign 
will  appear  in  white  dots  upon  the  glass;  these  will  guide  you  in 
laying  on  the  gold  on  the  opposite  side,  which  must  \w  icM  cleaned, 
preparatory  to  laying  on  the  gold.  PREPARING  THE  SIZE.— Boil 
perfectly  clean  water  in  an  enamelled  saucepan,  and  while  boiling, 
add  2  or  3  shreds  of  best  selected  isinglass,  after  a  few  minutes 
strain  it  through  a  clean  linen  rag;  when  cool  it  is  ready  for  use. 
CLEAN  THE  GLASS  PERFECTLY.— When  this  is  done,  use  a  flat 
cauiel's-hair  brush  for  lay  ing  on  the  size;  and  let  it  drain  off  when 

Siu  put  the  gold  on.  When  the  gold  is  laid  on  and  perfectly  dry, 
keaball  of  the  finest  cotton  wool  and  gently  rub  or  polish  the 
gold;  you  can  then  lay  on  another  coat  of  gold  if  desirable;  it  is  now 
ready  for  writing.  In  doing  this,  mix  a  little  of  the  best  vegetable 
black  japan;  thin  with  turpentine  to  a  proper  working  consistency: 
apply  this  when  thoroughly  dry;  wash  off  the  superfluous  gold,  and 
shade  as  in  sign-writing. 


Gilder's  Gold  Size.— Drying  or  boiled  linseed  oil,  thickened 
witli  yellow  ochre,  or  calcined  red  ochre,  and  carefully  reduced  to 
the  utmost  smoothness  by  grinding.  It  is  thinned  with  oil  of  tur- 
pentine. 


To  Gild  Letters  on  Wood,  &c.— When  your  sign  is  prepared 
as  smooth  as  possible,  go  over  it  with  a  sizing  made  by  the  white  of 
an  egg  dissolved  in  about  four  times  its  weight  of  cold  wafer;  add- 
ing a  small  quantity  of  fuller's  earth;  this  is  to  prevent  the  gold 
sticking  to  any  part  but  the  letters.  When  dry,  set  out  the  letters 
and  commence  writing,  laying  on  the  size  as  thinly  as  possible, 
with  a  sable  pencil.  Let  it  stand  until  you  can  barely  feel  a  slight 
stickiness,  then  go  to  work  with  your  cold  leaf  knife  and  cushion, 
and  gild  the  letters.  Take  a  leaf  up  on  the  point  of  your  knife, 
after  iriving  it  a  slight  puff  into  the  back  part  of  your  cushion,  and 
spread  it  on  the  front  part  of  the  cushion  as  straight  as  possible, 
giving  it  another  slight  puff  with  your  mouth  to  flatten  it  out. 
Now  cut  it  into  the  proper  size,  cutting  with  the  heel  of  your  knife 
forwards.  Now  rub  the  tip  lightly  on  your  hair;  take  up  the  gold 


RECEIPTS  FOB  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.     205 

on  the  point,  and  place  it  neatly  on  the  letters;  when  they  are  all 
ctivi-ivil  .n-'t  some  very  fine  cotton  wool,  and  gently  rub  the  gold 
until  it  is  smooth  and  bright.  Then  wash  the  sign  with  clean  water 
to  take  off  the  egg  size. 

Compound  Colors.—  LIGHT  GRAY  is  made  by  mixing  white 
lead  with  1  ;i:  u  i>-  black,  using  more  or  less  of  each  material,  as  you 
wish  to  obtain  a  lighter  or  darker  shade.  BUFF  is  made  from  yel- 
low ochre  and  white  lead.  SILVER  OR  PEARL  GRAY.—  Mix  white 
lead,  indigq.  and  a  very  slight  portion  of  black,  regulating  the 
quantities  you  wish  to  obtain.  FLAXEN  GRAY  is  obtained  by  a  mix- 
ture of  white  lead  and  Prussian  blue,  with  a  small  quantity  of  lake. 
BRICK  COLOR.—  Yellow  ochre  and  red  lead,  with  a  little  white. 
OAK  WOOD  COLOR.—  Three-fourths  white  lead  and  one-fourth  part 
umber  and  yellow  ochre,  proportions  of  the  last  two  ingredients 
being  determined  by  the  desired  tints.  WALNUT-TREE  COLOR.  — 
Two-thirds  white  lead,  and  one-third  red  ochre,  yellow  ochre,  and 
umber  mixed  according  to  the  shade  sought.  If  veining  is  rrquiivd, 
use  different  shades  of  the  same  mixture,  and  for  the  deepest 
places,  black.  JONQUIL.—  Yellow,  pink  and  white  lead.  This 
color  is  only  j>roper  for  distemper.  LKMON  YELLOW.  —  Realgar  and 
orpiment.  The  same  color  can  be  obtained  by  mixing  yellow  -pink 
with  Naples  yellow;  but  it  is  then  only  fit  for  distemper.  ORANGE 
COLOR.—  Red  lead  and  yellow  ochre.  VIOLET  COLOR.—  Vermilion, 
or  red  lead,  mixed  with  black  or  blue,  and  a  small  portion  of  white. 
Vermilion  is  far  preferable  to  red  lead  in  mixing  this  color.  PUR- 
PLE. —  Dark-red  mixed  with  violet  color.  CARNATION.  —  Lake  and 
white.  GOLD  COLOR.  —  Massicot,  or  Naples  yellow,  with  a  small 
quantity  of  realgar,  and  a  very  little  Spanish  white.  OLIVE  COLOR 


may  be  obtained  by  black  and  a  little  blue,  mixed  with  yellow. 

Yellow-pink,  with  a  little  verdigris  and  lamp- 

a  small  quantity  of  white  will  produce  an  olive  color.    For  distem- 


per, indigo  and  yellow-pink  mixed  with  white  lead  or  Spanish  white 
must  be  used.  "  If  veined  it  must  be  done  with  umber.  LEAD 
COLOR.  —  Indigo  and  white.  CHfc:sTNur  COLOR.  —  Red  ochre  and 
black,  for  a  dark  chestnut.  To  make  it  lighter,  employ  a  mixture 
of  yellow  ochre.  LIGHT  TIMBER  COLOR.—  Spruce  ochre,  white,  and 
a  little  umber.  FLESH  COLOR.—  Lake,  white  lead,  and  a  little  ver- 
milion. LIGHT  WILLOW  GREEN.—  White  mixed  with  verdigris. 
GRASS  GREEN.  —  Yellow-pink  mixed  with  verdigris.  STONE  COLOR. 
—  White,  with  a  little  spruce  ochre.  DARK  LEAD  COLOR.  —  Black 
and  white,  with  a  little  indigo.  FAWN  COLOR.  —  White  lead,  stone 
ochre,  with  a  little  vermilion.  CHOCOLATE  COLOR.—  Lamp-black 
and  Spanish  brown.  On  account  of  the  fatness  of  lamp-black,  mix 
some  litharge  and  red  lead.  PORTLAND  STONE  COLOR.  —  Umber, 
yellow  ochre,  and  white  lead. 

Dyes  for  Veneers.—  A  FINE  BLACK.—  Put  6  Ibs.  of  logwood  chips 
into  your  copper,  with  as  many  veneers  as  it  will  hold  without 
pressing  too  tight;-  fill  it  with  water,  let  it  boil  slowly  for  about 
;>  hours,  then  add  H  ID.  of  powdered  verdiyri*,  %  Ib.  copperas, 
bruised  mill-nuts,  4o/..;  fill  the  copper  up  with  vinegar,  as  the  water 
evaporates;  let  it  boil  gently  two  hours  each  day  till  the  wood  is 
dyed  through.  A  FLNE  BLUE.—  Put  oil  of  vitrol,  1  Ib.,  and  4  oz.  of 


206    RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

the  best  powdered  indigo,  in  a  glass  bottle.  Set  it  in  a  glazed 
earthen  pan.  as  it  will  term  'lit.  Now  put  your  veneers  into  a  cop- 
per or  stone  trough;  fill  it  rather  more  than  one-third  with  wat'-r, 
and  add  as  much  of  the  vitriol  ami  indigo  (stirring  it  about)  as  will 
make  line  blue,  testing  it  with  a  piece  of  whit.-  paper  or  wood.  Let 
the  veneers  remain  till  the  dye  has  struck  through.  Keep  the  solu- 
tion of  indigo  a  few  weeks  before  using  it;  this  improves  the  color. 
FINK  YKLI.OW. — Reduce  4  Ibs.  of  the  root  of  barberry  to  dust  by 
sawing,  which  put  in  a  copper  or  brass  trough;  add  turmeric,  4  oz.; 
wat-r',  4  gals.;  then  put  in  as  many  white  holly  veneers  as  the 
liquor  will  cover.  Boil  them  together  for  three  hours,  often  turn- 
ing them.  When  cool,  add  aquafortis,  2  {>•/..,  and  the  dye  will  strike 
through  much  sooner.  BRIGHT  CJKKKN. — 1'roceed  as  in  the  pre- 
vious receipt  to  produce  a  yellow;  but,  instead  of  aquafortis,  add  as 
much  of  the  vitriolated  indigo  O/e  above,  under  blue  dye)  as  will 
produce  the  desired  color.  BRIGHT  RED.— Brazil  dust,  2  Ibs.;  add 
water,  4  gal.s.  Put  in  as  many  veneers  as  the  liquid  will  cover: 
boil  them  for  3  hours,  then  add  alum,  2  ox..;  aquafortis,  2  oz.;  and 
ket-p  it  hike-warm  until  it  has  struck  through.  PURPLE. — To  2  Ibs. 
of  chip  logwood  and  %  Ib.  Brazil  dust,  add  4  gals,  of  water;  and 
after  putting  in  your  veneers,  boil  for  :5  hours;  then  add  pearlash, 
<5  oz.,  and  alum,  2  oz.;  let  them  boil  for  2  or  3  hours  every  day  till 
the  color  has  struck  through.  ORANGE. — Take  the  veneers  out  of 
the  above  yellow  dye,  and  while  still  wet  and  saturated,  transfer 
them  to  the  bright  red  dye  till  the  color  penetrates  throughout. 

Gilders'  Pickle.— Alum  and  common  salt,  each  1  oz.;  nitre,  2 
oz.;  dissolved  in  water,  %  pt.  Used  to  impart  a  rich  yellow  color 
to  gold  surfaces.  It  is  best  used  largely  diluted  with  water. 


To  Silver  Ivory.— Pound  a  small  piece  of  nitrate  of  silver  in  a 
mortar,  add  soft  water  to  it,  mix  them  well  together,  and  keep  in  a 
phial  for  use.  When  you  wish  to  silver  any  article,  immerse  it  in 
this  solution,  let  it  remain  till  it  turns  of  a  deep  yellow;  then  place 
it  in  clear  water,  and  expose  it  to  the  rays  of  the  sun.  If  you  wish 
to  depicture  a  figure,  name,  or  cipher,  on  your  ivory,  dip  a  camel's 
hair  pencil  in  the  solution,  and  draw  the  subject  on  the  ivory. 
After  it  has  turned  a  deep  yellow,  wash  it  welLwith  water,  and 
place  it  in  the  sunshine,  occasionally  wetting  it  with  pure  water. 
In  a  short  time  it  will  turn  of  a  deep  black  color,  which,  if  well 
rubbed,  will  change  to  a  brilliant  silver. 


To  Improve  the  Color  of  Stains.. — Xitric  acid,  1  oz.;  muriatic, 
]4  teaspoouful;  grain  tin,  }£  oz.;  rain  water,  '2  ox..  Mix  it  at  least  2 
days  before  using,  and  keep  your  bottle  well  corked. 


Strong  Glue  for  Inlaying  or  Veneering.— Select  the  best  light 
brown  glue,  tree  from  clouds  and  streaks.  Dissolve  this  in  water, 
and  to  every  pint  add  %  a  gill  of  the  best  vinegar  and  %  oz.  of 

isiuglass. 


RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    207 

Compound  Iron  Paint.— Finely  pulverized  iron  filings,  1  part; 
brick  dust,  1  part;  and  allies,  l  part.  Pour  over  them  glue- water  or 
tin-  whole,  near  the  lire,  and,  when  warm,  stir  them  well 
to^etli.T.  With  this  paint  cover  all  the  wood-work  which  may  he 
in  danger;  \vh»n  dry,  give  a  second  coat,  and  the  wood  will  be  ren- 
dered incombustible. 

Beat  "Wash  for  Barns  and  Houses.— "Water  lime,  1  peck; 
freshly  slacked  lime,  1  peck;  yellow  ochre  in  powder,  4  Ibs. ;  burnt 
umiMT,  4,  Ibs.  To  be  dissolved  in  hot  water,  and  applied  with  a 
brush. 


Durable  Outside  Paint.— Take  2  parts  (In  bulk)  of  water 
lime,  ground  tine:  1  part  (in  bulk)  of  white  lead,  in  oil.  Mix 
them  thoroughly,  by  adding  /<••>!  boiled  linseed  oil,  enough  to  pre- 
pare it  to  pass  through  a  paint  mill;  alter  which,  temper  with  oil 
till  it  can  be  applied  with  a  common  paint  brush.  Make  any 
color  to  suit  It  will  last  3  times  as  long  as  lead  paint  IT  is  so* 
rtauoK. 


Farmers'  Paint.— Farmers  will  find  the  following  profitable  for 
house  or  fence  paint:  skim  milk,  2  quarts;  fresh  slacked  lime,  8 
oz.;  linseed  oil,  6  oz.,  white  Burgundy  pitch,  2  oz.;  Spanish  white, 
three  pounds.  The  lime  is  to  be  slacked  in  water,  exposed  to  the 
air,  and  then  mixed  with  about  one-fourth  of  the  milk;  the  oil  in 
which  (lie  pitch  is  dissolved  to  be  added,  a  little  at  a  time;  then  the 
rest  of  the  milk,  and  afterwards  the  Spanish  white.  Thi»  is  suffi- 
cient for  27  yards,  2  coats.  This  is  for  white  paint  If  desirable, 
any  other  color  may  be  produced;  thus,  if  a  cream  color  is  desired, 
in  place  of  part  of  the  Spanish  white,  use  the  ochre  alone. 

Painting  in  Milk.— Skimmed  milk,  \$  gallon;  newly  slacked 
lime,  6  oz.;  and  4  oz.  of  poppy,  linseed,  or  nut  oil;  and  5  Ibs. 
Spanish  white.  Put  the  lime  into  an  earthen  vessel  or  clean  bucket: 
and,  having  poured  on  it  a  sufficient  quantity  of  milk  to  make  it 
about  the  thickness  of  cream,  add  the  oil  in  small  quantities,  a 
little  at  a  time,  stirring  the  mixture  well.  Then  put  in  the  rest  of 
the  milk,  afterward  the  Spanish  white  finely  powdered,  or  any 
other  desired  color.  For  out-door  work  add  2  oz.  each  more  of  od 
and  slacked  lime,  and  2  oz.  of  Burgundy  pitch  dissolved  in  the  oil 
by  a  gentle  heat 

Premium  Paint,  Without  Oil  or  Lead.— ;Slack  stone  lime 
with  boiling  water  in  a  tub  or  barrel  to  keep  in  the  steam;  then 
pass  G  quarts  through  a  fine  sieve.  Now  to  this  quantity  add  1 
quart  of  coarse  salt,  and  1  gallon  of  water;  boil  the  mixture,  and 
skim  it  clear.  To  every  5  gallons  of  tMs  skimmed  mixture,  add  1 
Ib.  alum;  ^  Ib.  copperas;  and  by  slow  decrees  %  Ib.  potash,  and  4 
quarts  sifted  ashes  or  line  sand;  add  any  coloring  desired.  A  more 
durable  paint  was  never  made. 

Green  Paint  for  Garden  Stands,  Blinds,  Etc.— Take  mineral 
14 


208    RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

green,  and  whit*-  lead  ground  in  turpentine;  mix  up  the  quantity 
you  wish  \vitli  a  small  quantity  of  turpentine  varnish.  This  serves 
lor  tin'  liist  coat.  For  the  second,  put  as  much  varnish  in  your 
mixture  as  will  produce  a  good  gloss.  If  you  desire  a  brighter 
given,  add  a  little  Prussian  blue,  which  will  improve  the  color. 

Milk  Paint   for  Barns.— ANY  COLOR.— Mix  water  lime  with 

skim-milk,  to  a  proper  consistence  to  apply  with  a  brush,  and 
it  is  ready  to  use.  It  will  adhere,  well  to  wood,  whether  smooth  or 
rough,  to  brick,  mortar,  or  stone,  where  oil  has  not  been  n-ed  (in 
which  ca^e  it  cleaves  to  some  extent,)  and  forms  a  very  hard  sub- 
stance, as  durable  as  the  best  oil  paint.  It  is  too  cheap  to  estimate, 
and  any  one  can  put  it  on  who  can  use  a  brush.  Any  color  may  l>e 
given  to  it,  by  using  colors  of  the  tinge  de>ired.  li  a  red  is  pre- 
ferred, mix  Venetian-red  with  milk,  not  using  any  lime.  It  looks 
well  for  fifteen  years. 

Paint.— To  MAKE  WITHOUT  LEAD  OR  OIL.  —  Whiting,  5  Ibs.; 

skimmed  milk,  •_'  qts. ;  iivsh  .slacked  lime,  •_'  o/..  Put  the  lime  into  a 
stone- ware  vessel,  pour  upon  it  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  milk  to 
make  a  mixture  resembling  en-am;  the  balance  of  the  milk  is  then 
to  be  added;  and  lastly,  the  whiting  is  to  be  crumbled  upon  the 
surface  of  the  fluid,  in  which  it  gradually  sinks.  At  this  period,  it 
must  be  well  stirred  in,  or  ground  as  you  would  other  paint,  and 
it  is  fit  for  use. 

Substitute  for  "White  Lead. TTard  cako  stoarlne,  100  Ibs.; 

bleached  resin,  !Kt  Ibs.;  fine,  potato  starch,  '2.~>  Ibs.  Melt  and  mix 
well.  Then  add  mucilage,  20  Ibs.;  stir  well,  till  nearly  cool;  then 
put  away  for  use. 

Paints,  Different  Sorts.— BLUE.— Blue-black,  25  Ibs. ;  whiting, 
100  Ibs.;  road  dust,  silted,  200  Ibs.;  lime-water,  12  gallons.  Facti- 
tious linseed  oil  to  grind. 

WHITE  PAT-NT.—  Whiting,  .wo  Ibs.;  white-load,  400  Ibs.;  lime- 
water,  20  gallons  Factitious  linseed-oil  to  grind. 

BLACK  PAINT.—  Ivory  or  lamp-Mark,  100  Ibs.;  road-dust,  sifted, 
200  Ibs. ;  liine-water,  18  gallons.  Oil  to  grind. 

BROWN  PAINT.— Venetian  red,  or  Spanish  brown,  1  cwt.;  rond- 
dust,  3  cwt. ;  common  soot,  28  Ibs.;  lime-water,  15  Ibs.  Factitious 
linseed  oil  to  grind. 

PARTS  OREEN.— Take  unslacked  lime  of  the  best  quality,  slack 
it  with  hot  water;  then  take  the  finest  part  of  the  powder,  and  add 
alum-water  as  strong  as  it  can  bo  made,  sufficient  to  form  a  thick 
paste;  then  color  it  with  bi-chromate  of  potash  and  sulphate  of 
copper  until  the  color  suits  your  fancy,  and  dry  it  for  use.  N.  B.— 
The  sulphate  of  copper  gives  a  blue  tmgBj  the"  bi-chromate  of  pot- 
ash, a  yellow.  Observe  this,  and  you  will  get  it  right 

Beautiful  Green  Paint  for  Walls.— Take  4  Ibs.  Roman  vit- 
riol,  and  pour  on  it  a  tea-kettle  full  of  boiling  water.  When  dis- 
solved, add  2  Ibs.  p'-arlash,  and  stir  the  mixture  well  with  a  stick 
until  the  effervescence  ceases;  then  add  X  H>.  pulverized  yellow 


RECEIPTS   FOR   MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    209 

arsenic,  and  stir  the  whole  together.  Lay  it  on  with  a  paint-brush; 
and,  if  the  wall  has  not  been  painted  before,  two,  or  even  three 

coats  will  h«-  requisite.  If  a  pea  jjreen  is  required,  put  in  less;  if 
an  apple  tin-en,  more  of  the  yellow  arsenic.  This  paint  does  not 
cost  tlu'  quarter  of  oil-paint,  and  looks  better. 

Blue  Color  for  Ceilings,  &c.— Boil  slowly  for  3  hours  1  Ib. 
Mm-  vitriol  and  X  Ib.  of  tne  best  whiting  in  about  3  qts.  water; 
stir  it  frequently  while  boiling,  and  also  on  taking  it  off  the  fire. 
When  it  lias  >t(Kvl  till  quite  cold,  pour  off  the  blue  liquid,  then 
\u\\  the  cake  of  color  with  good  size,  and  use  it  with  a  plasterer's 
brush  in  the  same  manner  as  whitewash,  either  for  walls  or  ceil- 
ings. 

To  Harden  Whitewash.— With  %  a  pail  of  common  white- 
wash add  ]4  pint  of  flour.  Pour  on  boiling  water  in  a  sufficient 
quantity  to  thicken  it.  Then  add  6  gab.  of  the  lime  and  water, 
and  stir  well. 

Whitewash  that  will  not  mb  off.— Mix  up  half  a  pailful 
of  lime  and  water,  ready  to  put  on  the  wall;  then  take  }^  pt.  of 
flour,  mix  it  up  with  water,  then  pour  on  it  the  boiling  water,  a 
sufficient  quantity  to  thicken  it ;  then  pour  it  while  hot  into  the 
whitewash,  stir  all  well  together,  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Whitewash.— The  best  method  of  making  a  whitewash  for 
outside  exposure  is  to  slack  half  a  bushel  of  lime  in  a  barrel,  add 
one  pound  of  common  salt,  half  a  pound  of  the  sulphate  of  zinc, 
and  a  gallon  of  sweet  milk. 

Substitute  for  Plaster  of  Paris.— Best  whitening,  2  Ibs.; 
glue,  1  Ib. ;  linseed  oil,  1  Ib.  Ileat  all  together,  and  stir  thoroughly. 
Let  the  compound  cool,  and  then  lay  it  on  a  stone  covered  with 
powdered  whitening,  and  heat  it  well  till  it  becomes  of  a  tough  and 
firm  consistence;then  put  it  by  for  use,  covering  with  wet  cloths  to 
keep  it  fresh.  When  wanted  for  use,  it  must  be  cut  in  pieces 
adapted  to  the  size  of  the  mould,  into  which  it  is  forced  by  a  screw 
press.  The  ornament  may  be  fixed  to  the  wall,  picture-frame, 
&<•.,  with  glue  or  white  lead.  It  becomes  in  time  as  hard  as  stone 
itself. 

Glne.— Powdered  chalk  added  to  common  glue  strengthens  it. 
A  glue  which  will  resist  the  action  of  water  is  made  by  boiling  1 
Ib.  of  glue  in  2  qts  of  skimuied  milk. 

Cheap  Waterproof  Glue.— Molt  common  glue  with  the  small- 
est possible  quantity  of  water;  add,  by  degrees,  linseed  oil,  ren- 
dered drying  by  boiling  it  with  litharge'.  While  the  oil  is  added, 
the  ingredients  must  be  well  stirred,  to  incorporate  them  thor- 
oughly. 

Fire  and  Waterproof  Glue.— Mix  a  handful  of  quick-lime  with 
4  oz.  of  Unseed  oil:  thoroughly  lixiviate  the  mixture:  boil  it  to  a 
good  thickness,  and  spread  it  on  tin  plates  in  the  shade;  it  will  lie- 
come  very  hard,  but  can  be  dissolved  over  a  fire,  like  common  glue, 
aiul  is  then  fit  for  use. 

Prepared   Liquid   Glue.— Take  of  best  white  glue,  16  oz.; 


210    RECEIPTS   FOR   MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

white-lead,  dry,  4  oz.;  rain-water,  2  pts.;  alcohol,  4  oz.  With 
constant  stirring,  dissolve  the  glue  and  lead  in  the  water,  l.y 
means  of  a  water-bath.  Add  the  alcoliol,  and  continue  tin-  heat 
for  a  few  minutes.  Lastly,  pour  into  bottles,  while  it  is  still  hot. 

Prussian  Blue.— Take  nitric  acid,  any  quantity,  and  as 
much  iron  shavings  from  the  lathe  as  the  acfd  will  dissolve;  heat 
the  iron  as  hot  as  it  can  he  handled  with  the  hand:  then  add  to  it  the 
acid  in  small  quantities  as  lone;  as  the  acid  will  dissolve  it;  then 
slowly  add  double  the  quantity  of  soft  water  that  there  was  of 
acid,  and  put  in  iron  again  as  long  as  the  acid  will  dissolve  it.  2. 
Take  prussiate  of  potash,  dissolve  it  in  hot  water  to  make  a  strong 
solution,  and  make  sufficient  of  it  with  the  first  to  give  the  depth 
of  tint  desired,  and  the  blue  is  made.  Or,— 

Another  Method.— A  very  passable  Prussian  blue  is  made  by 
taking  sulphate  of  iron  (copperas)  and  prussiate  of  potash,  equal 
parts  of  each;  and  dissolving  each  separately  in  water,  then  mixing 
the  two  waters. 

Chrome  Yellow  . — 1.  Take  sugar  of  lead  and  Paris  white,  of 
each  5  Ibs. ;  dissolve  them  in  hot  water.  1!.  Take  hi-chromate  of 
potash,  6%  oz.,  and  dissolve  it  in  hot  water  al>o;  each  article  to  be 
dissolved  separately;  then  mix  all  together,  putting  in  the  bi-chro- 
mate  last.  Let  staud  twenty-four  hours. 

Chrome  Green.— Take  Paris  white,  r>r<  Ibs.;  sugar  of  lead,  and 
blue  vitriol,  of  each,  3%  Ibs. ;  alum,  10'-£  oz. ;  best  >olt  Prussian  blue 
and  chrome  yellow,  of  each,  3'^  Ibs.  Mix  thoroughly  while  in  fine 
powder,  and  add  water,  1  gallon,  stirring  well  and  let  stand  three 
or  four  hours. 

Green,  Durable  and  Cheap. — Take  spruce  yellow,  and  color 
it  with  a  solution  of  chrome  yellow  and  Prussian  blue,  until  you 
give  it  the  shade  you  wish. 

Another  Method.— Blue  vitriol,  5  Ibs.;  sugar  of  lead  6^  Ibs.; 
arsenic,  2%  Ibs.;  bi-chromate  of  potash,  1%  oz. ;  mix  them  thor- 
oughly in  fine  powder,  and  add  water  3  parts,  mixing  well  again, 
and  let  stand  three  or  four  hours.  • 

Pea  Brown.— 1.  Take  sulphate  of  copper  any  quantity,  and 
dissolve  it  in  hot  water.  2.  Take  prussiate  of  potash,  dissolve  it  in 
hot  water  to  make  a  strong  solution;  mix  of  the  two  solutions,  as 
in  the  blue,  and  the  color  is  made. 

Rose  Pink.— Brazil  wood,  1  lb.,  and  boil  It  for  two  hours, 
having  1  gallon  of  water  at  the  end;  then  strain  it.  and  lx.il  alum,  1 
lb.,  in  the  same  water  until  dissolved;  when  sufficiently  cool  to 
admit  the  hand,  add  muriate  of  tin,  %  oz.  Now  have  Paris  white, 
12%  Ibs.;  moisten  up  to  a  salvy  consistence,  and  when  the  first  is 
cool  stir  them  thoroughly  together.  Let  stand  twenty- four  hours. 

Patent  Yellow.— Common  salt,  100  Ibs.  and  litharge,  400 
Ibs.,  are  ground  together  with  water,  and  kept  for  some  time  in  a 
gentle  heat,  water  being  added  to  supply  the  loss  hv  evaporation; 
the  carbonate  of  soda  is  then  washed  out  with  more  water,  and  the 
white  residuum  heated  till  it  acquires  a  fine  yellow  color 


RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    211 

Naples  Yellow.— No.  1.  Metallic  antimony,  12  Ibs.;  red  lead, 

P  Hi-;. :  oxide  of  xine,  4  Ibs.  Mix;  calcine,  triturate  well  together, 
:unl  t  use  in  a  crucible:  the  fused  mass  must  be  ground  and  elutriated 
to  a  fine  powder. 

Cheap  Yellow  Paint.—  Wuitincr,  3  cwt.;  ochre,  2  cwt.;  ground 
white  lead,  -'5  Ibs.  Factitious  linseed  oil  to  grind. 

Stone  Color  Paint.— T^ond  dust,  2  cwt.;  ground  white  lead, 
^  cwt,;  whiiinu',  1  <-wt.;  ground  umber,  14  Ibs.;  lime  water,  6  gals. 
Factitious  linseed  oil  to  grind. 

Glazier's  Putty.— Whiting,  70  Ibs.;  boiled  ofl,  30  Ibs.;  water, 
2  yuls.  Mix;  if  too  thin,  add  more  whiting;  if  too  thick,  add  more 
oiL 

Fish  Oil  Faints.— Dissolve  whit*  vitriol  and  litharge,  of  each 
14  Ibs.,  in  vinegar,  32  gals.;  add  whale,  seal,  or  cod  oil,  1  tun,  and 
boil  to  dryness,  continually  stirring  during  the  ebullition.  The 
next  day,  decant  the  clear  portion;  add  linseed  oil,  12  gals.,  oil  of 
turpentine,  3  gals.,  mix  well  together.  The  sediment  left  is  well 
agitated  with  half  its  quantity  of  lime  water,  used  for  some  inferior 
paints  under  the  name  of  "prepared  residue,  oft."  This  oil  is  used 
for  various  common  purposes,  as  a  substitute  for  linseed  oil,  of 
which  the  following  paints  are  examples:— 

1.  PALE  GREEN.— Lime  water,  6  gals;  whiting  and  road  dust,  of 
each,  1  cwt.;  blue-black,  30  Ibs.;  yellow  ochre,  28  Ibs.;  wet  blue 
(previously  ground  in  pr>*par«d  residue,  oil,)  20  Ibs.;  grind  well  to- 
gether.   For  use,  thin  with  equal  parts  of  prepared  residue  oil  and 
linseed  oil. 

2.  BRIGHT  GREET*. — Yellow  ochre  and  wot  bine,  of  each,  1  cwt. : 
road  dust,  1H  cwt.;  bine-black,  10  Ibs.;  limewater,  6  gals.;  prepared 
fish  oil,  4  gals.;  prepared  residue  and  linseed  oils,  of  each,  7%  gals. 

3.  LEAD  COLOR.— Whiting,  1  cwt. ;  blue-black,  7  Ibs. ;  white  lead, 
(ground  in  oil,)  28  Ibs  ;  road  dust,  56  Ibs.;  lime  water,  5  gals.;  pre- 
pared residue  oil,  2V£  gals. 

4.  REDDTSH   Bnows. — Lime  water,  8  gals.;  Spanish  brown,  1 
cwt.;  road  dust,  2  cwt.;  prepared  fish,  prepared  residue  and  linseed 
oils,  of  each,  4  gals. 

5.  YELLOW. — Substitute  ochre  for  Spanish  brown  in  the  last  re- 
ceipt. 

f>.  BLACK.— Substitute  lamp  or  blue-black  for  Spanish  brown  in 
No.  4. 

7.  STOXE  COLOR. — Lime  water,  4  gals.;   whiting,  1  cwt.;  white 
lead  (ground  in  oil),  L'Hlbs.:  mul  dttK,  56  Ibs.;  prepared  fish,  lin- 
seed, and  prepared  residue  oils,  of  each,  3  gals. 

8.  CHOCOLATE.— Nos.  4  and  6  mixed  together  so  as  to  form  a 
chocolate  color. 

REMARKS. — All  the  above  paints  require  a  little  ''driers."  They 
are  well  fitted,  by  their  cheapness,  hardness,  and  durability,  for 
common  out-door  work. 

Porcelain  Finish,  very  Hard  and  White  for  Parlors.— To 
prepare  the  wootl  for  finish,  if  it  be  pine,  give  one  or  two  coats  of 
the  "  Varnish— Transparent  for  Wood,"  which  prevents  the  pitch 


212    RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL,  PURPOSES. 

from  oozing  out,  causing  the  finish  to  turn  yellow;  next,  Rive  the 
room  at  least  four  coats  of  pure  zinc,  which  may  t>c  (pound  in  only 
sufficient  oil  to  enable  it  to  grind  properly;  then  mix  to  a  proper 
consistence  with  turpentine  or  naphtha.  Give  each  coat  tune  to 
dry.  When  it  is  dry  ami  hard,  sandpaper  it  to  a  perfectly  smooth 
surface,  when  it  is  ready  to  receive  the  finish,  whi.-h  oonaMfl  <>t  t\\«> 
coats  of  French  zinc  ground  in,  and  thinned  with  Demar  varnish, 
until  it  works  properly  under  the  brush. 

Japan  Drier,  BEST  QUALITY.— Take  linseed  oil,  1  gallon;  put 
into  it  gum  shellac,  %  11).:  litharge  and  burned  Turkey  umber,  -a  h 
]4  lb.;  red  lead,  ',  11).;  sugar  of  lead,  i\  oz.  Boil  in  the  oil  till  nil 
are  dissolved,  which  will  require  about  four  hours;  remove  from 
the  fire,  and  stir  in  spirits  turpentine  1  gallon,  and  it  is  done. 

Another.— Linseed  oil,  5  gallons;  add  red  lead  and  litharge,  each 
3%  Ibs.;  raw  umber,  l'<  Ibs.;  .sugar  of  lead  and  sulphate  of  /inc, 
each  %  lb.;  pulverize  all  the  articles  together,  and  boil  in  the  oil 
till  dissolved;  when  a  little  cool,  thin  with  turpentine,  5  gallons. 

Drying  Oil  Equal  to  Patent  Driers  at  One  Quarter  their 
Price. — Linseed  oil,  2  gallons;  red  lead  ami  umber,  each.  4  o/..;  sul- 
phate of  zin  •,  2  oz.;  sn^ir  of  lead,  2  oz.  Boil  until  it  will  scorch  a 
leather,  when  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Prepared  Oil  for  Carriages,  &c.— To  1  gallon  linseed  oil  add 
2  Ibs.  gum  shellac;  litharge,  }4  lb.;  red  lead,  ' ;'  lb.;  umber.  1  oz. 
Boil  slowly  as  usual  until  the  gums  are  dissolved;  grind  your  paints 
in  this  (any  color,)  and  reduce  with  turpentine.  Yellow  ochre  is 
used  in  BOOT  painting. 

Drying  Oils.  1.— Xut  or  linseed  oil,  1  gal.;  litharge,  12  oz; 
sugar  of  lead  and  white  vitriol,  of  each  1  oz.;  simmer  and  skim 
until  a  pellicle  forms;  cool,  and,  when  settled,  decant  the  clear.  2. 
Oil,  1  gal.;  litharge,  12  to  16  oz.;  as  last.  3.  Old  nut  or  linseed  oil, 

1  pint;  litharge,  3  oz.     Mix;  agitate  occasionally  for  10  days;  then 
decant  the  clear.    4.  Nut  oil  and  water,  of  each  2  Ibs.;  white  vitriol, 

2  oz.;  boil  to  dryness.    5.  Mix  oil  with  powdered  snow  or  ice,  and 
keep  it  for  2  months  without  thawing. 

To  reduce  Oil  Paint  with  "Water.— Take  8  Ibs.  of  pure  nn- 
slacked  lime,  add  12  qts.  water,  stir  it  ami  let  it  settle,  turn  it  off 
gently  and  bottle  it,  keep  it  corked  till  used.  This  will  mix  with 
oil,  and  in  proportion  of  half  will  render  paint  more  durable. 

Oil  Paint.— To  REDUCE  WITH  WATER.— Gum  shellac,  1  lb.;  sal- 
soda,  K  I'M  water,  3  parts;  boil  all  together  in  a  kettle,  stirring 
till  dissolved.  If  it  does  not  all  dissolve,  add  a  little  more  sal-sola; 
when  cool,  bottle  for  use;  mix  up  2  quarts  of  oil  paint  as  usual,  any 
color  desired,  using  no  turpentine;  put  1  pint  of  the  gum  shellac 
mixture  with  the  oil  paint  when  it  becomes  thick;  it  can  then  be 
reduced  with  water  to  a  proper  thickness  to  lay  on  with  a  brush. 

Another  Method.— Soft  water,  1  gallon;  dissolve  it  in  penrlash, 
3oz.;  bring  to  a  boil,  and  slowly  add  shellac,  l  lb.;  when  cold  it  i3 
ready  to  be  added  to  oil  paint  iu  equal  proportions. 

How  to  build  Gravel  Houses. — This  is  the  best  building  mate- 
rial in  the  world.  It  is  four  times  cheaper  than  wood,  six  times 


RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    213 

cheaper  than  stone,  and  superior  to  either.  Proportions  for  mix- 
ing: To  ei.u'lit  barrows  of  slacked  lime,  well  deluged  with  water, 
aild  1.1  barrows  <>i  sand;  mix  these  to  a  creamy  consistency,  then 
add  60  barrows  of  coarse  gravel,  which  must  be  worked  well  and 
completely;  you  can  then  throw  stones  into  this  mixture,  of  any 
shape  or  size,  up  to  ten  inches  in  diameter.  Form  moulds  for  the 
walls  of  the  house  by  fixing  boards  horizontally  against  upright 
standards  which  must  be  immovably  braced  so  that  they  will  not 
yield  to  tin-  immense  pressure  outwards  as  the  material  settles;  set 
MM  standards  in  pairs  around  the  building  where  the  walls  are  to 
stand,  from  six  to  eight  feet  apart,  and  so  wide  that  the  inner  space 
shall  form  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  Into  the  moulds  thus  formed 
throw  in  the  concrete  material  a,s  fast  as  you  choose,  and  the  more 
promiscuously  the  better.  In  a  short  time  the  gravel  will  get  as 
hard  as  the  solid  rock. 

Flexible  Paint  for  Canvas.— Yellow  soap,  2^  Ibs.,  boiling 
water,  114  gals.,  dissolve;  grind  the  solution  while  hot  with  good  oil 
paint,  \\/i  cwt.  Use  for  canvas. 

Painter's  Cream. — Pale  nut  oil,  fl  or.,  mastic,  1  or..,  dissolve; 
add  of  sugar  of  lead,  ^  oz.,  previously  ground  in  the  least  possible 
ouantity  of  oil,  then  add  of  water  q.  *.,  gradually,  until  it  acquires 
the  consistency  of  cream,  working  it  well  all  the  time.  Used  to 
cover  the  unfinished  work  of  painters.  It  will  wash  off  with  water. 

Mastic  Cement  for  Covering  the  Fronts  of  Houses. — Fifty 
parts,  by  measure,  of  clean  dry  sand,  fifty  of  limestone  (not 
burned)  reduced  to  grains  like  sand,  or  marble  dust,  and  ten  parts 
of  red  lead,  mixed  with  as  much  boiled  linseed  oil  as  will  make  it 
slightly  moist.  The  bricks  to  receive  it  should  be  covered  with 
three  coats  of  boiled  oil,  laid  on  with  a  brush,  and  suffered  to  dry 
before  the  mastic  is  put  on.  It  is  laid  on  with  a  trowel  like  plaster, 
but  it  is  not  so  moi«t.  It  becomes  hard  as  stone  in  a  few  months. 
Care  must  be  exercised  not  to  use  too  much  oil. 

Cement  for  Outside  of  Brick  "Walls.— Cement  for  the  outside 
of  brick  walls,  to  imitate  stone,  is  made  of  clean  sand,  90  parts; 
litharge,  5  parts;  plaster  of  Piiris,  5  parts;  moistened  with  boiled 
linseed  oil.  The  bricks  should  receive  two  or  three  coats  of  oil 
before  the  cement  is  applied. 

Cement  for  Tile  Roofs.— Equal  parts  of  whiting  and  dry 
sand,  and  25  per  cent,  of  litharge,  made  into  the  consistency  of 
putty  with  linseed  oil.  It  is  not  liable  to  crack  when  cold,  nor  melt, 
like  coal-tar  and  asphalt,  with  the  heat  of  the  sun. 

Excellent  Cheap  Roofing.—  SHTTOLES  SUPERSEDED.— Have 

your  roof  stiff,  rafters  made  of  stuff  11$  by  8  inches,  well  supported 
and  6  feet  apart,  with  ribs  1  inch  by  2  inches,  set  edgeways,  well 
na'led  to  the,  rafters,  about  18  inches  apart.  The  boards  may  be 
thin,  but  must  be  well  seasoned,  and  nailed  close  together;  this 
done,  lay  down  and  cover  the  roof  with  thin,  soft,  spongy  straw 
paper  used  in  making  paper-boxes,  which  comes  in  rolls,  and  comes 


214    RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

rery  low.  Lay  in  course  up  and  down  the  roof,  and  lap  over,  nail- 
teg  doWQ  with  common  No.  6  tacks,  \vitli  leather  under  the  In  ads 
like  carpet-tacks.  Then  spread  on  several  coatings  (if  the  following 
composition,  previously  boiled,  stirred,  and  mixed  together:  BOM 
clean  tar,  s  gals. ;  h'omau  eemeiit,  L'  gals,  (or  in  its  place  very  line, 
clean  sand  maybe  used;)  resin,  .".  Ibs.;  tallow,  .'(  HIS.;  apply  ho't;  anil 
let  a  hand  follow,  and  shift  on  sharp  grit  sand,  praMmgn  into  the 
tar  composition.  If  wished  fire-proof,  go  over  the  above  with  the 
following  preparation:  Slake  stone  lime  under  cover  with  hot  water 
till  it  falls  into  a  line  powder;  sift  and  mix  6  qts.  of  this  with  1  <|t. 
salt,  add  2  gals,  water,  boil  and  skim.  To  5  gals,  of  this  .add  1  lb. 
alum,  and  1>$  Ibs.  of  copperas,  and  slowly,  while  boiling,  1%  Ibs. 
pota-h,  and  4  qts.  of  clean,  sharp  sand,  and  any  coloring  desired. 
Apply  a  thick  coat  with  a  brush,  and  you  may  nave  a  roof  which 
no  lire  can  injure  from  the  outside. 

"Water  Lime  at  Fifty  Cents  per  Barrel.— Fine,  clean  sand, 
100  Ibs.;  quick  lime  in  powder,  28  IDS.;  bone-ashes,  14  Ibs.;  for  use, 
beat  up  with  water,  and  use  as  quick  as  possible. 

To  Render  "Wood  Indestructible.—  Tionnrxs's  PROCFP?  — 
This  seems  to  be  a  process  of  inestimable  value,  and  destined  to 
produce  very  important  results.  The  apparatus  used  e.»nsi^t>  of  a 
retort  or  still,  which  can  be  made  of  any  size  or  form,  in  which 
resin,  coal  tar,  or  other  oleaginous  substances,  together  with  water, 
are  placed  in  order  to  subject  them  to  the  action  of  heat.  Fire 
being  applied  beneath  the  retort  containing  the  coal  tar,  &c.,  oleagi- 
nous vapor  commences  to  ris--.  and  pass  out  through  a  connecting 
pipe  into  a  large  iron  tank  or  chamber  (which  can  also  be  built  of 
any  si/.e),  containing  the  timber,  &c.,  to  be  operated  upon.  The 
heat  acts  at  once  on  the  wood,  causing  the  sap  to  flow  from  every 
pore,  which,  rising  in  the  form  of  steam,  condenses  on  the  body 
of  the  chamber,  and  discharges  through  an  escape  pipe  in  the 
lower  part.  In  this  process  a  temperature  of  I'll'0  to  2BO°Fahr. 
Is  sufficient  to  remove  th-  surface  moisture  from  the  wood;  but 
after  this  the  temperature  should  be  raised  to  300°  or  more,  in  order 
to  completely  saturate  and  permeate  the  body  of  the  wood  with  the 
antiseptic  vapors  and  heavier  products  of  the  distillation.  The  hot 
vapor coa«iuhites  the  albumen  of  the  wood,  and  opens  the  pores,  so 
that  a  large  portion  of  the  oily  product  or  creosote  is  admitted;  the 
contraction  resulting  from  the  cooling  process  hermetically  seals 
them,  and  decay  seems  to  be  almost  impossible.  There  is  a  man 
bole  in  the  retort,  used  to  change  or  clean  out  the  contents;  and 
the  wood  chamber  is  furnished  with  doors  made  perfectly  tight. 
The  whole  op  >ration  is  completed  in  less  than  one  hour,  rendering 
the  wood  proof  against  rot,  parasites,  and  the  attacks  of  the  Tcralo 
tutntis  or  naval  worm. 


Cement  for  Seams  In  Roofs.-Take  equal  quantities  of  white 
lead  and  white  sand,  and  as  much  oil  as  will  make  it  into  the 
consistence  of  putty.  It  will  in  a  few  weeks  become  as  hard  a3 
stone. 


RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    215 

Roman  Cement.— Drift  sand,  84  parts;  unslacked  lime,  liMbs.; 
anil  4  HH.  of  the  poorest  cheese  grated;  mix  well;  add  hot  (not  boil- 
ing) water  to  reduce  to  a  proper  consistence  for  plastering.  Work 
well  and  quick  with  a  thin,  smooth  coat. 

Smalt—  ftoast  cobalt  ore  to  drive  off  the  arsenic;  make  the 
resiilmiiu  into  a  paste  with  oil  of  vitriol,  and  heat  it  to  redness  for 
sin  hour;  powder,  dissolve  in  water,  and  precipitate  the  oxide  of 
in.ii  by  carlMHiate  of  potash,  gradually  added  until  a  rose-colored 
ponder  begins  to  fall;  then  decant  the  clear,  and  precipitate  by  a 
solution  of  silicate  of  potash  prepared  by  fusing  together  for  a  hours 
a  mixture  of  10  parts  of  potash,  15  parts  of  finely  ground  flints,  and 
1  part  charcoal.  The  precipitate,  when  dry,  may  be  fused  and 
powdered  very  fine. 

Fictitious  Linseed  Oil. — Fish  or  vegetable  oil,  100  gallons; 
acetate  of  lead,  7  Ibs.:  litharge,  7  Ibs.;  dissolved  in  vinegar,  2  gal- 
lons. Well  mixed  with  heat,  then  add  boiled  oil,  7  gallons;  turpen- 
tine,  1  gallon.  Again  well  mix. 

Varnishes.— COMMON  On,  VARNISH.— Resin,  4  Ibs.;  beeswax, 
U  lb.;  boiled  oil,  1  gallon;  mix  with  heat;  then  add  spirits  turpen- 
tine, 2  quarts. 

MABTIC  VARNISH.—  Mastic,  1  lb.;  white  wax,  1  oz.;  spirits  tur- 
pentine, 1  gallon;  reduce  the  gums  small;  then  digest  it  with  heat 
In  a  close  vessel  till  dissolved. 

TURPENTINE  VARNISH.—  Resin,  1  lb. ;  boiled  oil,  1  lb. ;  melt;  then 
add  turpentine,  2  Ibs.  Mix  well. 

PALE  VARNISH.— Pale  African  copal ,  1  part;  fuse.  Then  add 
hot  pale  oil,  2  parts.  Boil  the  mixture  till  it  is  stringy;  then  cool  a 
little,  aud  add  spirits  turpentine,  3  parts. 

LACQUFR  VARNISH.— A  good  lacquer  Is  made  by  coloring  lacquer 
varnish  with  turmeric  and  annotto.  Add  as  much  of  these  two 
coloring  substances  to  the  varnish  as  will  give  it  the  proper  color; 
then  squeeze  the  varnish  through  a  cotton  cloth,  when  it  forma 
lacquer. 

Deep  Gold-Colored  Lacquer.— Seed  lac,  three  ounces;  tur- 
meric, one  ounce;  dragon's  blood,  one-fourth  ounce;  alcohol, 
one  pint;  digest  for  a  week,  frequently  shaking;  decant,  and 
filter. 

Lacquers  are  used  upon  polished  metals  and  wood  to  Impart  the 
appearance  of  gold.  If  yellow  is  required,  use  turmeric,  aloes,  saf- 
fron, or  gamlioge;  for  red,  use  annotto,  or  dragon's  blood,  to  color. 
Turmeric,  gamboge,  and  dragon's  blood  generally  afford  a  sufficient 
range  of  colors. 

Gold  Varnish.— Digest  shellac,  sixteen  parts  gum  sandarach 
mastic,  of  each  three  patts;  crocus,  one  part;  gum  gamboge,  two 
parts;  all  bruised,  with  alcohol,  one  hundred  and  forty-four  parts. 
Or,  digest  seedlac,  sandarach,  mastic,  of  each  eight  parts;  gam- 
boge, two  parts;  dragon's  blood,  one  part;  white  turpentine,  six 
puts;  turmeric,  four  parts;  bruised  with  alcohol,  one  hundred  and 
twenty  parts. 


216     RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

Gold  Lacquer. — Put  into  a  clean  four-gallon  tin  1  pound  of 
ground  turmeric,  ll<  <>/.s.  of  gamboge,  3J^  Ibs.  of  powd<  r«  d  um:i 
snndaraeh,  *•{  of  a  II).  of  shellac,  ami  two  gaOOM  of  spirit-  < 
"When  shaken,  di- -nlved,  and  strained,   add  1  pint  of  turpentine 
varnish,  well  mixed. 

Polish  for  Turner's  Work. — Dissolve  sardarneh,  1  oz.,  in 
spirits  of  wine,  %  pt. ;  next  shave  bee-wax,  1  <>/. ;  and  dissolve  it  in 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  sj>irits  turpentine  to  DUUEeH  into  a  paste; 
add  the  former  mixture  l»y  degrees  to  it.  then  with  a  woolen  cloth 
apply  it  to  the  work  while 'it  is*m  motion  in  the  lathe,  and  with  a 
soft  linen  rag  polish  it.  It  will  appear  as  if  highly  varnished. 

Varnish  for  Tools.— Take  tallow,  2  oz.;  rosin,  1  07.,  and  molt 
together.  Strain  while  hot  to  get  rid  of  specks  which  are  in  the, 
resin;  apply  a  slight  coat  on  your  tools  with  a  brush,  and  it  will 
keep  off  rust  for  any  length  of  time. 

Gold  Varnish. —  Turmeric,  1  dram;  gambogo,  i  dram;  tur- 
pentine, 2  pints;  shellac,  .->  oz.;  sandaraeh.  .">  <>/..;  dragon's  Mood,  8 
drams;  thin  mastic  varnish,  u  07..;  digest  with  occasional  agitation 
for  14  days;  then  set  it  aside  to  fine,  aud  pour  off  the  clear. 

Book-Binder's  Varnish.  —  Shellac,  eight  parts;  gum  bon- 
zoin,  3  parts;  gum  mastic,  two  parts;  bruise,  ami  digest  in  alco- 
hol, 48  parts;  oil  of  lavender,  %  part.  Or,  digest  ^i--;l.ie,  4  parts; 
gum  mastic,  '_'  parts;  gum  dammer  and  white  turpentine,  of  each  1 
part;  with  alcohol  (93  per  cent.),  28  parts. 

Beautiful  Pale  Amber  Varnish.— Amber,  pale  and  trans- 
parent, 6  Ibs.;  fuse;  add  hot  clarified  linseed  oil,  -.'gals.:  boil  till  it 
strings  strongly,  cool  a  little,  and  add  oil  of  turpentine,  I  gals.  This 
soon  becomes  very  hard,  and  is  the  most  durable  of  oil  varnishes. 
When  wanted  to' dry  quicker,  drying  oil  may  be  substituted  for 
linseed,  or  '"driers"  may  be  added  during  the  cooling. 

Black  Coach- Varnish.— Ambor,  1  lb.;  fuse;  add  hot  drying 
oil,  %  pt.;  powdered  black  resin  and  Naples  asphaltum,  of  each  "> 
o?..  W  hen  properly  incorporated  and  considerably  cooled,  add  oil 
of  turpentine,  1  pt. 

Body  Varnish.— Finest  African  copal,  R  Ibs.:  fuso  carefully; 
add  clarified  oil,  2  gals.;  boil  gently  for  4%  hours,  or  until  quite 
stringy:  cool  a  little,  and  thin  with  oil  of  turpentine,  3>£  gals. 
Drica  slowly. 

Carriage  Varnish.—  Sandnrnch,  19  oz.;  pale  shollao,  9V  oz.; 
very  pale  transparent  resin,  viy^  oz.;  turpentine.  IK  07..;  «."»  per 
cent,  alcohol,  ">  pts.;  dissolve.  Used  for  the  internal  parts  of  car- 
riages, &c.  Dries  in  ten  minutes. 

Cabinet-Maker's  Varnish.— Very  pale  shellac.  5  Ibs.;  ma^tlo.  7 
oz. ;  alcohol,  90  per  cent,  5  or  (J  pts. ;  dissolve  in  the  cold  with  frequent 
stirring.  Used  for  French  polishing,  &c. 

Japanner's  Copal  Varnish.— Pale  African  copal,  1  Ibs;  fuse; 


RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    217 

add  clarified  linseed  oil,  K  pal.;  boil  five  minutes,  remove  it  into 
tli«-  o|K»n  air:  adit  boiling  oil  of  turjtentine,  3  gals.;  mix  well,  strain 
it  into  the  cistern,  and  cover  it  up  immediately.  Used  to  varnish 
furniture,  and  by  japanners,  coachmakers,  &c. 

Copal  Varnish.— Pale,  hard  copal,  8  Ibs.;  add  hot  and  pale 
drying  oil,  -'  gals.;  l>oil  till  it  strings  strongly,  cool  a  little,  and  thin 
\\ilh  hot  r.M-tiiifii  oil  of  turpentine,  3 gals.;  and  strain  immediately 
Into  the  store  can.  Very  fine. 

Gold  Varnish  of  Watin,  for  Gilded  Articles.— Gumlac 
in  grains,  gamlMigr.  dragon's  blood,  and  annotto,  of  each  12J$  oz.; 
saffron,  3'4  oz.  Each  resin  must  be  dissolved  separately  in  5  pts. 
of  90  per  cent,  alcohol,  and  two  separate  tinctures  must  be  made 
with  the  dragon's  blood  and  annotto  in  a  like  quantity  of  spirit; 
and  a  proper  proportion  of  each  mixed  together  to  produce  the  re- 
quired shade. 

Varnish  for  Plaster  Casts.— White  soap  and  white  wax, 
each  ]4  oz. ;  water,  2  pts. ;  boil  together  in  a  clean  vessel  for  a  short 
time.  This  varnish  is  to  be  applied  when  cold  with  a  soft  brush. 

Transparent  Varnish  for  Ploughs,  &c. — Best  alcohol,  1 
gal.;  gum  sandaraeh,  2  Ibs.;  gum  mastic,  ';  lb.;  place  all  in  a  tin 
can  which  admits  of  being  corked;  cork  tight,  shake  it  frequently, 
occasionally  placing  the  can  in  hot  water.  When  dissolved,  it  is 
ready  for  use. 

Fine  Black  Varnish  for  Coaches.— Melt  In  an  iron  pot, 
amber,  32  o/.,;  resin,  6  oz.;  asphaltum,  6  oz.;  drying  linseed  oil,  1 
pt. ;  when  partly  cooled,  add  oil  of  turpentine,  warmed,  1  pint 

Mordant  Varnish. — Dissolve  1  oz.  mastic,  1  oz.  sandarach, 
14  oz.  gum  gamboge,  and  >4'  oz.  turpentine  in  6  oz.  spirits  turpen- 
tine. One  of  th«-  siuij-!e>t  mordants  is  that  procured  by  dissolving 
a  little  honey  in  thick  glue.  It  has  the  effect  of  greatly  heighten- 
ing the  color  of  the  gold,  and  the  leaf  sticks  extremely  well. 

Changing  Varnish.— To  IMITATE  GOLD  OR  SILVER,  Ac.  Put 
4  oz.  best  gum  gamboge  into  32  oz.  spirits  of  turpentine;  4  oz. 
dragon's  blood  into  32  oz.  spirits  turpentine,  and  1  oz.  of  annotto 
into  8  oz.  spirits  turpentine.  Make  the  3  three  mixtures  indiffer- 
ent vessels.  Keep  them  in  a  warm  place,  exposed  to  the  sun  as 
much  as  possible,  tor  about  2  weeks,  when  they  will  be  fit  for  use. 
Add  together  such  quantities  of  each  liquor  as  the  nature  of  the 
color  you  are  desirous  of  obtaining  will  point  out. 

Varnish,  Transparent,  for  "Wood.  — Best  alcohol,  1  gal.; 
nice  gum  shell,  2X  ibs.  Place  the  jug  or  bottle  in  a  situation  to 
keep  it  just  a  little  warm,  and  it  will  dissolve  quicker  than  if  hot, 
or  left  cold. 

Patent  Varnish  for  "Wood  or  Canvas.— Take  spirits  of 
turpentine,  Igal.;  asphaltum,  2>^lbs. ;  put  them  into  an  iron  kettle 
which  will  fit  upon  a  stove,  and  dissolve  the  gum  by  heat.  When 
dissolved  and  a  little  cool,  add  copal  varnish,  1  pt.;  and  boiled  lin- 
seed oil,  1  pt.;  when  cold  it  is  ready  for  use.  Perhaps  a  little  lamp- 
black would  make  it  a  more  perfect  black. 


218    RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

Beautiful  Varnish  for  Violins,  &c.  —  Rectified  spirits  of 
wine,  »4  pal.;  add  t>  o/..  mini  sandarach,  3  oz.  gum  mastic,  and  % 
pint  turpentine  varnish;  put.  the  above  in  a  tin  can  by  tin-  BtoVCy 
frequently  shaking  till  well  dissolved;  strain,  and  keep  for  use. 
]|  you  find  it  harder  than  you  wish,  thin  with  more  turpentine- 
varnish. 

Crimson  Satin  for  Musical  Instruments.— Ground  Brazil 
•wood,  1  lb.;  water,  3  (marts;  cochineal,  %  ounce;  boil  the  Brazil 
with  the  water  for  an  hour,  strain,  add  the  cochineal,  boil  gently 
for  half  an  hour,  when  it  will  be  fit  for  use.  If  you  wish  a  gcarlet 
tint,  l)oil  an  ounce  of  saffron  in  a  quart  of  water,  and  pass  over  the 
work  before  you  stain  it. 

urple  Satin.— Chipped  logwood,  1  lb.;  water,  3  quarts;  pearl- 
ash,  4  ounces;  powdered  indigo,  2  ounces.  15oil  the  logwood  jn  the 
water  half  an  hour,  add  the  pearl-ash  and  indigo,  and  when  dis- 
solved you  will  have  a  beautiful  purple. 

Green  Stain.— Strong  vinegar,  3  pints;  best  verdigris,  4  oz. 
ground  fine;  sap  green,  %  ounce;  mixed  together. 

Black  Stains  for  Wood.— 1.  Drop  a  little  sulphuric  acid  into 
a  small  quantity  of  water;  brush  over  the  wood,  and  hold  it  to 
the  tire;  it  will  lie  a  line  black,  and  receive  a  good  polish.  2.  For 
a  beautiful  black  on  wood,  nothing  can  exceed  the  black  Japan 
mentioned  under  Tinsmith's  Department.  Apply  two  coats;  after 
which,  varnish  and  polish  it.  3.  To  1  gallon  vinegar,  add  a  quarter 
of  a  pound  of  iron-rust;  let  it  stand  for  a  week;  then  add  a  pound 
of  dry  lamp-black,  and  three  quarters  of  a  pound  of  copperas; 
stir  it  up  for  a  couple  of  days.  Lay  on  five  or  six  coats  with  a 
sponge,  allowing  it  to  dry  between  each;  polish  with  linseed  oil  and 
a  suit  \\oolen  rag,  and  it  will  look  like  ebony.  Incomparable  for 
iron  work,  ships'  guns,  shot,  &c.  4.  Vinegar,  %  gallon;  dry  lamp- 
black, %  lb.;  iron-rust  sifted,  3  Ibs.;  mix,  and  let  stand  for  a  week. 

Lay  three  coats  rtf  this  on  hot,  and  then  rub  with  lins I  oil,  and 

you  will  have  a  fine  deep  black.    5.  Add  to  the  above  stain  nut- 
galls,  1  oz.;  logwood  chips,  }^  lb.;  copperas,  \4  lb,;  lay  on  three 


coats;  oil  well,  and  you  will  have  a  black  stain  that  will  stand  any 
kind  of  weather,  and  is  well  adapted  for  ships'  combines,  &c.  6. 
Logwood  chips,  l  lb.;  Brazil  wood,  X  lb.;  bail  for  1%  hours  in  one 


gallon  water.  Hrusli  the  wood  with  this  decoction  while  hot;  make 
a  decoction  of  nutgalls,  by  simmering  gently,  for  three  or  tour  days, 
a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  the  galls  in  2  quarts  water;  give  the  wood 
three  coats,  and,  while  wet,  lay  on  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron 
(2  oz.  to  a  quart.)  and,  when  dry,  oil  or  varnish.  7.  Give  thn  e 
coats  with  a  solution  of  copper-filings  in  aquafortis,  and  repeatedly 
brush  over  with  the  logwood  decoction  until  the  greenness  of  the 
copper  is  destroyed.  S.  Boil  'J  lb.  logwood  chips  in  '_'  (marts  water; 
add  an  ounce  of  pearl-ash,  and  apply  hot  with  a  brush.  Then  take 
2  quarts  of  the  logwood  decoction,  and  %  oz.  of  verdigris,  and  the 
same  of  copperas;  strain,  and  throw  in  ^  lb.  of  iron-rust.  Brush 
the  work  well  with  this,  and  oil. 


RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    219 

Rose-wood  Stain,  Light  Shade.— Equal  parts  of  logwood  and 
nd-WOOd  chips;  boil  well  in  water  sulnYicnt  to  make  a  strong  stain; 
apply  it  to  the  furniture  while  hot,  '2  or  3  coats,  according  to  the 
depth  of  color  desired. 

Rose  Pink  Stain  and  Varnish.— Put  1  oz.  of  potash  In  1  qt. 
water,  with  red  sunders,  P.;  oz. ;  extract  the  color  from  the  wood,  and 
strain;  then  add  gum  shellac,  '.;,  lit.-,  dissolve  it  by  a  brisk  tire. 
Used  upon  logwood  stain  for  rosewood  imitation. 

Blue  Stain  for  Wood. — 1.  Dissolve  copper-filings  In  aqua- 
fortis, brush  the  wood  with  it,  and  then  go  over  the  work  with  a 
hot  solution  of  pearlash  (2  oz.  to  1  pint  water)  till  it  assumes  a 
perfectly  blue  color.  2.  Boil  1  Ib.  of  indigo,  2  Iks.  wood,  and  3  oz. 
alum,  in  1  gallon  water;  brush  well  over  until  thoroughly  stained. 

Imitation  of  Botany  Bay  Wood.— Boil  14  Ib.  of  French  berries 
(the  unripe  berries  of  the  ItJuHHniu  inftvtorius)  in  2  quarts  water 
till  of  a  deep  yellow,  and,  while  boiling  hot,  give  two  or  three  coats 
to  the  work.  If  a  deejwr  color  is  desired,  give  a  coat  of  logwood 
decoction  over  the  yellow.  When  nearly  dry,  form  the  grain  with 
No.  8  black  stain,  used  hot;  and,  when  dry,  rust  and  varnish. 

Mahogany  Color.— DARK.— 1.  Boil  %  Ib.  of  madder  and  2 
oz.  logwood  chips  in  a  gallon  of  water,  and  brush  well  over  while 
hot;  when  dry,  go  over  the  whole  with  pearlash  solution,  2  drs.  to 
the  quart.  2.  Put  2  oz.  dragon's  blood,  bruised,  into  a  quart  of  oil 
;  of  turpentine;  let  the  bottle  stand  in  a  warm  place;  shake  fre- 
quently, and,  when  dissolvod,  steep  the  work  in  the  mixture. 

Box  "Wood  Brown  Stain.— ITold  your  work  to  the  fire,  that  It 
may  receive  a  gentle  warmth;  then  take  aquafortis,  and,  with  a 
feather,  pass  it  over  the  work  till  you  find  it  change  to  a  fine 
brown  (always  keeping  it  near  the  fixe;)  you  may  then  varnish  or 
polish  it 

Light  Brown  Red.— Boil  ]4  Ib.  madder  and  X  Ib.  fustic  In  1 
gnl.  water;  brush  over  the  work,  when  boiling  hot,  until  properly 
stained.  2.  The  surface  of  the  work  being  qufce  smooth,  brush 
over  with  a  weak  solution  of  aquafortis,  X  oz.  to  the  pint;  then 
finish  with  the  following:  Put  \%  oz.  dragon's  blood  and  1  oz. 
soda,  both  wtll  bruised,  to  3  pints  spirits  of  wine;  let  it  stand  in  a 
warm  place,  shake  frequently,  strain,  and  lay  on  with  a  soft  brush, 
repeating  until  of  a  proper  color.  Polish  with  linseed  oil  or  var- 
nish. 

Purple.— Brnsh  the  work  several  times  with  the  logwood  de- 
coction used  for  No.  6  Mack;  and,  when  dry,  give  a  coat  of  pearl- 
ash solution,  1  drachm  to  a  quart;  lay  it  on  evealy. 

Red.  — 1.  Boil  1  Ib.  Brazil  wood  and  1  oz.  pearlash  in  1  gallon 
water;  and,  while  hot,  brush  over  the  work  until  of  a  proper  color. 
Dissolve  2  oz.  alum  in  1  quart  water,  and  brush  the  solution  over 
the  work  before  it  dries.  2.  Take  a  gallon  of  the.  above  stain,  add 
2  oz.  more  pearlash;  use  hot,  and  brush  over  with  the  alum  solu- 
tion. 3.  Use  a  cold  solution  of  archil,  and  brush  over  with  the 
pearlash  solution  used  for  No.  1  dark  mahogany. 


220    RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

Ebony  Stain.— Infuse  pall-nuts  in  vinegar  wherein  you  have 
soaked  rusty  nails;  then  rub  your  wood  with  this;  lot  it  dry,  polish 
and  burni»li. 

Bright  Yellpw  Stain.  —  1.  Brush  over  with  the  tincture  of 
turmeric.  '2.  Warm  tin-  work,  and  brush  it  over  with  weak  aqua- 
fortis; varnish  or  oil  as  usual.  3.  A  very  small  hit  of  aloes  put 
into  the  varnish  will  give  a  rich  yellow  color  to  the  wood. 

Extra  Black  Stain  for  "Wood.— Pour  2  qts.  boiling  water 
over  1  o/.  of  powdered  extract  of  logwood,  and,  when  the  .solu- 
tion is  effected,  1  dr.  of  yellow  chromate  of  potash  is  added,  and 
the  whole  well  stirred.  It  is  then  ready  for  use  as  a  wood-stain,  or 
for  writing  ink.  When  rubbed  on  wood,  it  produces  a  pure  black. 
Repeat  with  two,  three,  or  four  applications,  till  a  deep  black  is 
produced,  which  acquires  the  highest  beauty  when  polished  or 
stained. 

Imitation  of  Mahogany.— Lot  the  first  coat  of  painting  be 
white  lead;  the  second,  orange;  and  the  last,  burnt  umber  or 
sienna;  imitating  the  veins  according  to  your  taste  and  practice. 

To  Imitate  Wainscot.—  Lot  the  first  coat  he  white;  the 
second,  half  white  and  half  yellow;  and  the  third,  yellow  ochre 
only;  shadow  with  umber  or  sienna. 

To  Imitate  Satin  Wood. — Take  white  for  your  first  coating, 
light  blue  for  the  second,  and  dark  blue  or  dark  green  for  the 
third. 

Rosewood  Satin,  very  Bright  Shade.  —  FPFP  COTJV  — 
Take  alcohol,  1  gal.;  camwood,  u  o/.;  set  them  in  a  warm  place,  24 
hours;  then  add  extract  of  logwood,  3  oz.;  aquafortis,  1  oz.;  and 
when  dissolved  it  is  ready  for  use;  it  makes  a  very  bright  ground, 
like  the  most  beautiful  rosewood;  one,  two,  or  more  coats  as  you 
desire,  over  the  whole  surface. 

Varnish  for  Frames,  Etc.  —  Lav  the  frames  over  with  tfn 
or  silver  foil  by  means  of  plaster  of  Paris,  or  cement  of  some  kind, 
that  the  foil  mtiy  be  perfectly  adherent  to  the  wood;  then  apply 
your  gold  lacquer  varnish,  which  is  made  as  follows:  ground  tur- 
meric, lib.;  powdered  uraniboge,  P.;  ounces;  powdered  sandarach, 
3%  Ibs. ;  powdered  shellac,  3;  Ib. ;  spirits  of  wine,  •_'  gals.;  dissolve, 
and  strain;  then  add  turpentine  varnish,  1  pt;  and  it  is  ready  for 
use. 

Cherry  Stain.— Tain  water,  3  qt<?.;  annotto,  4  oz.;  boil  in 
a  copper  kettle  till  the  annotto  is  dissolved,  then  put  in  a  piece  of 
potash  the  size  of  a  walnut,  keep  it  on  the  fire  about  half  an  hour 
longer,  and  it  is  ready  to  bottle  for  use. 

Black  Walnut  Stain.  — New,  very  cheap,  sinks  deep,  and 
very  good  imitation.  Dissolve  permanganate  of  potash  in  water; 
about  1  oz.  to  a  pailful.  Vary  to  suit  the  tnste.  It'  bought  in 
quantities,  this  stain  should  not  cost  over  60  cents  per  barrel. 


RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    221 

Miscellaneous  Stains.— YELLOW  is  produced  by  diluted  ni- 
tric acid  RED  is  produced  by  a  solution  of  dragon's  blood  in 
spirits  of  wine.  BLACK  is  produced  by  a  strong  solution  of  nitric 
acid.  GREEN  is  produced  by  a  solution  of  verdigris  in  nitric  acid. 
Then  dipped  in  a  hot  solution  of  pearlash  produces  a  BLUE  stain. 
POKPLE  Ls  produced  by  a  solution  of  sal-auiiuoniac  in  nitric  acid. 

Finishing  with  one  Coat  of  Varnish. — VALUABLE  PROCESS. 
—  Give  the  furniture  a  coat  of  boiled  linseed  oil,  then  immediately 
sprinkle  dry  starch  upon  it,  and  rub  it  in  well  with  your  hand,  or 
a  stiff  brush,  all  over  the  surface;  the  starch  absorbs  the  oil,  and 
fills  the  pores  of  the  wood  completely.  For  black  walnut,  add  a 
little  burned  umber  to  the  starch:  for  cherry,  a  little  Venetian 
red,  &c.,  according  to  the  color  of  the  wood.  Turned  work  can 
have  it  applied  while  in  motion  in  the  lathe.  Furniture  can  after- 
wards be  finished  with  only  one  coat  of  varnish. 

Polishes.— CARVER'S  POLISH.— White  resin,  2  oz.;  seed  lac, 
2  oz.;  spirits  of  wine,  1  pt  Dissolve.  It  should  be  laid  on  warm. 
Avoid  moisture  and  dampness  when  used. 

2.  FRENCH  POLISH. — Gum  shellac,  loz.;   gum  arabic,   \£  oz. ; 
gum  copal.  %  oz.    Powder,  and  sift  through  a  piece  of  muslin;  put 
them  in  a  closely  corked  bottle  with  1  pt.  spirits  of  wine,  in  a  very 
warm  situation,  shaking  every  '/ '//  till  the  gums  are  dissolved; 
then  strain  through  muslin,  and  cork  for  use. 

3.  POLISH  FOR  DARK-COLORED  WOODS. — Seed  lac,  1  oz.;   gum 
guaiaeum,  2drs.;  dragon's  blood,  2  drs.;  gum  mastic,  2  drs.;  put  in 
a  bottle  with  1  pt.  spirits  of  wine,  cork  close,  expose  to  a  moderate 
heat  till  the  gums  are  dissolved;  strain  into  a  bottle  for  use,  with  \.+ 
gill  of  linseed  oil;  shake  together. 

4.  WATER-PROOF  POLISH  —Gum  benjamin,  2  oz. ;  gum  sandarach, 
J^  oz.;  gum  anima,  »^oz.;  spirits  of  wine,  1  pt.      Mix  in  a  closely 
Btoppeclbottle,  and  place  either  in  a  sand  Itath  or  in  hot  water  till 
the  gums  are  dissolved,  then  strain  off  the  mixture,  shake  it  up 
with  a  «<  gill  of  the  best  clear  poppy  oil,  and  put  it  by  for  use. 

5.  FINISHING  POLISH.— Gum  shellac,  2  drs.;  gum  benjamin,  2 
drs.;  put  into  %  pint  of  best  rectified  spirits  of  wine  in  a  bottle 
closely  corhed,  keep  in  a  warm  place,  shaking  frequently  till  the 
gums  are  dissolved.    When  cold,  shake  up  with  it  two  teaspoon- 
f  ula  of  the  best  clear  poppy  oiL 


Polish  for  Removing  Stains,   Spots,   and  Mildew  from 

urniture.—  Take  of   98  per  cent,  alcohol,  %  pt.;  pulverized  resin 

and  gum  shellac,  of  each,  V  oz.    Let  these  cut  in  the  alcohol;  then 


add  linseed  oil,  ^  pt.;  shake  well,  and  apply  with  a  sponge,  brush, 
or  cotton  flannel,  or  an  old  newspaper,  rubbing  it  well  after  the  ap- 
plication, which  gives  a  nice  polish. 

Polish  for  Reviving  Old  Furniture,  Equal  to  the 
"Brother  Jonathan."—  Take  alcohol,  \}i  oz.;  spirits  of  salts  (mu- 
riatic acid),  %  oz.;  linseed  oil,  8  oz.;  best  vinegar,  14  pt.;  and  but- 
ter of  antiuiony,  \%  oz.;  mix,  putting  in  the  vinegar  last. 

Jet  or  Polish  fer  Wood  or  Leather,  Black,  Red,  or 
Blue.  —  Alcohol  (98  per  cent.),  1  pt.;  sealing  wax,  the  color  de- 
sired, 3  stii'ks;  dissolve  by  heat,  and  have  it  warm  when  applied. 
A  sponge  is  the  best  to  apply  it  with. 


222    RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL   PURPOSES. 

Furniture  Fillings  —  1.  Beeswax,  spirits  of  turpentine  and 
linseed  oil,  equal  parts  ""'It  and  cool.  2.  Beeswax,  four  oz.;  tur- 
pentine, 10  oz.;  aikanet  root,  to  color;  melt  and  strain.  3.  Bees- 
wax, 1  11).;  linseed  oil,  5  oz.;  aikanet  root,  one-half  ounce;  melt,  add 
6  oz.  of  turpentine;  strain  and  cool.  4.  Beeswax,  4  oz,  resin,  1  oz.; 
oil  of  turpentine,  2  oz.;  Venetian  red,  to  color. 

Furnitxire  Polish.— Beeswax,  X  lb.;  and  a  \£  oz.  of  aikanet 
root;  melt  together  in  a  pipkin  until  the  fonner  is  well  colored. 
Then  add  linseed  oil  and  spirits  of  turpentine,  of  each  %  a  gill; 
strain  through  a  piece  of  coarse  uiusliu. 

French  Polishes.— 1.  Shellac,  3  llw.;  wood  naphtha,  3  pts.; 
dissolve.  2.  Sh'-llae,  2  Ibs. ;  powdered  mastic  and  Nandarach,  of 
each,  1  oz. ;  copal  varnish,  X  pt.;  spirits  of  wine,  1  gal.  Digest  in 
the  cold  till  dissolved. 

Furniture  Fillings.— 1.  Turpentine,  1  pt. ;  aikanet  root,  i  oz.; 
digest  until  sufficiently  colored,  then  add  beeswax,  scraped  MIKI!!,  4 
oz.;  put  the  vessel  into  hot  water,  and  stir  till  dissolved.  If  wanted 
pale,  the  aikanet  root  should  be  omitted.  '2  (  \\'/iit:)  White  wax, 
1  lb.;  liquor  of  potassa,  %  gal.;  boil  to  a  prop,  r  consistence.  :<. 
Beeswax,  1  II).;  soap,  >^  lb.;  p  -arlasli,  .",  o/.  (dissolved  in  water,  >^ 
gal.,  and  strained,)  boil  as  last.  4.  Yellow  wax,  It;  parts  resin,  l 
part;  alkanet  root,  1  part;  turpentine,  ti  parts;  linseed  oil,  G  parts. 
First  steep  the  aikanet  in  the  oil  with  heat,  and,  when  well  colored, 
pour  off  the  clear  on  the  other  ingredients,  and  again  heat  till  all 
are  dissolved. 


Furniture  Cream.— Beeswax,  1  lb.;  soap,  4 
soft  water,  1  gal.,  boil  together  until  mixed. 


oz.;  pearlash,  2  oz.; 


Furniture  Oils.— 1.  Acetic  acid,  2  dr.;  oil  of  lavender,  X  dr.; 
rectified  spirit,  1  dr.;  linseed  oil,  4  oz.  2.  Linseed  oil,  1  pt.;  aikanet 
root,  2oz.;  heat,  strain  and  add  lac  varnish,  1  oz.  3.  Linseed  oil, 
1  pt. ;  rectified  spirit,  2  oz.;  butter  of  antimony,  4  oz. 

Mosaic  Gold  Powder  for  Bronzing. — Melt  1  lb.  tin  in  a 
crucible,  and  %  lb.  of  purified  quicksilver  to  it;  when  this  is 
cold,  it  is  reduced  to  powder,  and  Around,  with  %  lb.  sal-ammoniac 
and  7  oz.  flour  of  sulphur,  till  the  whole  is  thoroughly  mixed.  They 
are  then  calcined  in  a  matrass;  and  the  sublimation  of  the  other  in- 
gredients leaves  the  tin  converted  into  the  mosaic  gold  powder 
which  is  found  at  the  bottom  of  the  glass.  Remove  any  black  or 
discolored  particles.  The  sal-ammoniac  used  mu>t  be  very  white 
and  clear,  and  the  mercury  of  the  utmost  purity.  When  a  "deeper 
red  is  required,  grind  a  very  small  quantity  of  red  lead  with  the 
above  materials. 

True  Gold  Powder.— Put  some  gold-leaf,  with  a  little  honey, 
or  thick  gum-water  made  with  gum  arabic,  into  an  earthen  mortar, 
and  pound  the  mixture  till  the  gold  is  reduced  to  very  small  parti- 


RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.     223 

rlfs;  then  wn«h  out  (he  honey  or  gum  repeatedly  with  warm  water, 
and  the  gold  in  powder  will  be  left  behind.  When  dry,  it  is  fit  for 
use. 

Dntch  Gold  Powder  Is  made  from  Dutch  gold-leaf,  which  is 
sold  in  hooks  at  a  v»-ry  low  price.  Treat  in  the  manner  described 
n!iu\<-  fur  true  gold  powder.  When  this  inferior  powder  is  used, 
o<>\ •<•:•  tip-  eliding  \vitli  a  coat  of  clear  varnish,  otherwise  it  wili  soon 
kM. Mi  bright  appearance. 

Copper  Powder  Is  prepared  hy  dissolving  filing  or  slips  of  cop- 
per with  nitrous  acid  in  a  receiver.  When  the  acid  is  saturated, 
the  slips  are  to  be  removed;  or,  if  filings  be.  employed,  the,  solution 
is  to  be  poured  off  from  what  remains  undissolved.  Small  bars  are 
then  put  in,  which  will  precipitate  the  copper  powder  from  the 
saturated  acid;  and,  the  liquid  being  poured  from  the  powder,  this 
is  to  be  washed  clean  of  the  crystals  by  repeated  waters. 

General  Directions  for  Bronzing.— The  choice  of  the  above 
powders  is,  of  course,  determined  by  the  degree  of  brilliancy 
you  wish  to  obtain.  The  powder  is  mixed  with  strong  ram-water 
or  isinglass,  and  laid  on  with  a  brush  or  pencil;  and,  when  not  so 
dry  as  to  have  still  a  certain  clamminess,  a  piece  of  soft  leather 
wrapped  round  the  finger  is  dipped  in  the  powder,  and  rubbed  over 
the  work.  When  the  work  has  been  all  covered  with  the  bronze,  it 
must  be  left  to  dry,  and  any  loose  powder  then  cleared  away  by  a 
hair-pencil. 

The  Bronzing  of  Plaster  Casts  is  effected  hy  giving  them 
a  coat  of  oil  or  size  varnish,  and  when  this  is  nearly  dry  applying 
with  a  dabber  of  cotton  or  a  camel  hair-pencil  any  of  the  metallic 
bronze  powders;  or  the  powder  may  be  placed  fn  a  little  bag  of 
muslin,  and  dusted  over  the  surface,  and  afterwards  finished  with  a 
wad  of  linen.  The  surface  must  be  afterwards  varnished. 

Bronzing  Iron.— The  subject  should  be  heated  to  a  greater  de- 
greee  than  the  hand  can  bear,  and  German  gold,  mixed  with  a 
small  quantity  of  spirit-of-wino  varnish,  spread  over  it  with  tho 
pencil;  should  the  iron  be  already  polished,  you  must  heat  it  well, 
and  moisten  it  with  a  linen  rag  dipped  hi  vinegar. 

French  Burnished  Gilding.—  EntoUage,  or  Kjue  coat. —To 
a  decoction  of  wormwood  and  garlic  in  water,  strained  through  a 
cloth,  a  little  common  salt  and  some  vinegar  are  added.  This  is 
mixed  with  as  much  good  glue,  and  the  mixture  spread  in  a  hot 
state  with  a  brush  of  boar's  hair.  When  plaster  or  marble  is  gilded, 
leave  out  the  salt.  The  first  glue-coating^  is  made  thinner  than  tho 
second.  2.  Whits  preparation  consists  in  covering  the  above  sur- 
face with  8,  10,  or  12  coats  of  Spanish  white,  mixed  up  with  strong 
size;  each  well  worked  on  with  the  brush.  3.  Stop  up  the  pores 
with  thick  whiting  and  glue,  and  smooth  the  surface  with  dog-skin. 
4.  Polish  the  surface  with  pumice-stone  and  very  cold  water.  5.  Re- 
touch the  whole  in  a  skilful  manner.  6.  Cleanxe  with  a  damp  linen 
rag,  and  then  a  soft  sponge.  7.  Rub  with  a  horse's  tail  (shave-gran) 
15 


224    RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

the  parts  to  be  yellowed,  to  make  thorn  softer.  8.  Yellow  with  ytl- 
low  ochre  carefully  ground  in  water,  and  mixed  with  transparent 
colorless  size.  Use  the  thinner  part  of  tin-  mixture  with  a  fine 
brush.  9.  Next  rub  tlie  work  with  shave-grass  to  remove  any 
granular  appearance.  10.  (Jold-wntar  &ize  consists  of  Armenian 
bole,  1  lb.;  bloodstone  (hematite),  '-'  07..;  and  as  much  galena,  each 
separately  ground  in  water.  Then  mix  all  together  with  a  spoonful 
of  olive  oil.  ThU  is  tempered  with  a  white  sheepskin  glue,  clear 
and  well  strained.  Heat  and  apply  three  coats  with  a  fine  long- 
haired brush.  11.  Hub  \yith  a  clean,  dry  linen  cloth,  except  the 
parts  to  be  burnished,  which  are  to  receive  other  two  coats  of  the 
gold  size,  tempered  with  glue.  12.  The  surface  damped  with  cold 
water  ("iced  in  summer),  has  then  the  gold-leaf  applied  to  it  Gild 
the  hollow  ground  before  the  more  prominent  parts;  water  being 
dexterously  applied  by  a  soft  brush,  immediately  behind  the  gold- 
leaf,  before  laying  it  down;  removing  any  excess  of  water  with  a 
dry  brush.  13.  Burnish  with  bloodstone.  14.  Next  pass  a  thin 
coat  of  glue,  slightly  warmed,  over  the  parts  that  are  not  to  be  bur- 
nished. 15.  Next  moisten  any  broken  points  with  a  brush,  and 
apply  bits  of  gold-leaf  to  them.  16.  Apply  the  vermeil  coat  very 
lightly  over  the  gold-leaf  with  a  soft  brush.  It  gives  lustre  and  fire 
to  the  gold,  and  is  made  as  follows:  annotto,  2  oz.;  gamboge,  1  oz.; 
vermilion,  1  oz.;  dragon's  blood,  %  oz.;  salt  of  tartar,  2  oz.; 
saffron,  18grs.;  boil  in  2  English  pints  of  water,  over  a  slow  lire, 
till  it  is  reduced  to  a  fourth;  then  pass  the  whole  through  silk  or 
muslin  sieve.  17.  Next  pass  over  the  dead  surfa--e>  a  s-vond  coat  of 
deadening  glue,  hotter  than  the  first  This  finishes  the  work  and 
gives  it  strength. 

Bronzing  or  Gilding  Wood. — Pipe  clay,  2  oz.;  Prussian  blue, 
patent  yellow,  raw  umber,  lampblack,  of  each,  1  oz.:  grind  separ- 
ately with  water  on  a  stone,  and  as  much  of  them  as  will  make  a 
good  color  put  into  a  small  vessel  three-fourths  full  of  si/e.  The 
wood,  being  previously  cleaned  and  smoothed,  and  coated  with  a 
mixture  of  clean  size  and  lampblack,  receives  a  new  coating  twice 
successively,  with  the  above  compound,  having  allowed  the  first 
to  dry.  Afterwards  the  bronze  powder  is  to  be  laid  on  with  a 
pencil,  and  the  whole  burnished  or  cleaned  anew,  observing  to  re- 
pair the  parts  which  may  be  injured  by  this  operation;  next  the 
work  must  be  coated  over" with  a  thin  layer  of  Castile  soap,  which 
will  take  the  glare  off  the  burnishing;  and  afterwards  be  carefully 
rulilied  with  a  woolen  cloth.  The  superfluous  powder  may  be 
rubbed  off  when  dry. 

Bronze  Powder  of  a  PALE  GOLD  color  is  produced  from  an  alloy 
of  131^  parts  of  copper,  and  U%  parts  zinc,  of  a  CRIMSON  METALLIC 
LUSTRE  from  copper,  of  a'pofor  color,  copper,  and  a  very  little  zinc; 
QUEEN  bronze  with  a  proportion  of  verdigris,  of  a  fine  ORANGE 
color,  by  14^  parts  copper  and  1%  zince;  another  ORANGE  color, 
13%  parts  copper  and  2^  zinc.  The  alloy  is  laminated  into  very 
fine  leaves  with  careful  annealing,  and  these  are  levieated  into  im- 
palpable powders,  along  with  a  film  of  fine  oil,  to  prevent  oxidize- 
ment,  and  to  favor  the  levigation. 


RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL   PURPOSES.    225 

Reviver  for  Gilt  Frames.— White  of  eggs,  2  oz.;  chloride  of 

potash  or  scbla.  l  oz.;  mix  well,  blow  off  the  dust  from  th«>  frames: 
then  go  over  them  with  a  soft  brush  dipped  in  the  mixture,  ana 
tin- y  will  appear  equal  to  ucw. 

Gliding  on  Wood.— To  gild  In  oil,  the  wood  after  being  pro- 
perly  smoothed,  is  eovered  with  a  coat  of  gold  riae,  made  of  drying 
DMeed  <»il  mixed  with  yellow  ochre;  when  this  has  become  so  dry 
as  to  adhere  to  the  fingers  without  soiling  them,  the  gold  leaf  is 
laid  on  with  great  care  and  dexterity,  and  pressed  down  with 
cotton  wool;  places  that  have  been  missed  are  covered  with  small 
pieces  of  gold  leaf,  and  when  the  whole  is  dry,  the  ragged  bits  are 
rubl>ed  off  with  the  cotton.  This  is  by  far  the  easiest  mode  of  gild- 
ing: any  other  metallic  leaves  may  be.  applied  in  a  similar  manner. 
PALE  LEAK  GOLD  has  a  greenish  yellow  color,  and  is  an  alloy  of 
gold  and  silver.  Dutch  gold  leaf  is  only  copper  leaf  colored  with 
the  fumes  of  zinc;  being  much  cheaper  than  true  gold  leaf,  it  is 
very  useful  when  large  quantities  of  gilding  are  required  in  places 
where  it  can  be  defended  from  the  weather,  as  it  changes  color  if 
exposed  to  moisture;  and  it  should  be  covered  with  varnish.  SIL- 
VER LEAF  is  prepared  every  way  the  same  as  gold  leaf;  but  when 
applied  should  be  kept  well  covered  with  varnish,  otherwise  it  is 
liable  to  tarnish;  a  transparent  yellow  varnish  will  give  it  the  ap- 
pearance of  gold.  Whenever  gold  is  fixed  by  means  of  linseed  ou. 
it  will  bear  washing  off,  which  burnished  gold  will  not 

Best  Color  for  Boot,  Shoe,  and  Harness  Edge.— Alcohol. 

1  pint;  tincture  of  iron,  1H  oz.;  extract  logwood,  1  oz.;  pulverized 
nutgalls,  1  oz.:  soft  water,  ',;  pint;  sweet  oil,  '.:  oz. ;  put  this  last 
Into  the  alcohol  before  adding  the  water.    Nothing  can  exceed  the 
beautiful  finish  imparted  to  the  leather  by  this  preparation.    The 
only  objection  is  the  cost. 

Cheap  Color  for  the  Edge. — Soft  water,  1  gallon;  extract  log- 
wood, 1  oz. ;  boil  till  the  extract  is  dissolved;  remove  from  the  fire, 
and  add  copperas,  2  oz.;  bi-chromate  of  potash  and  gum  arable,  of 
each,  %  oz.;  all  to  be  pul"erized. 

Superior  Edge  Blacking.— Soft  water,  5  gallons;  bring  to  a 
boil,  and  add  8  oz.  logwood  extract,  pulverized;  boil  3  minutes,  re- 
move from  the  fire,  and  stir  in  -1 :  oz.  gum  arable,  1  oz.  bi-chromate 
of  potash,  and  80  grains  prussiateof  potash. 

For  a  small  quantity  of  this,  use  water,  2  quarts;  extract  of  log- 
wood,  ft  oz. ;  gum  arable,  96  grains:  bi-chromate  of  potash,  48 
grains;  prussiate  of  potash,  8  grains.  Boil  the  extract  in  the  water 

2  minutes;  remove  from  the  fire,  and  stir  in  the  others;  and  it  is 
ready  for  use. 

For  tanners'  surface  blacking,  which  is  not  required  to  take  on  a 
high  polish,  the  gum  arabic  may  be  omitted. 

Sizing  for  Boots  and  Shoes  in  Treeing  Out.— Water,  1 
quart;  dissolve  in  it  by  heat,  isingiass,  1  oz.;  adding  more  water 


226    RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL   PURPOSES. 

to  replace  loss  by  evaporation;  when  dissolved,  add  starch,  6  oz.; 
extract  of  lOffWOOd,  beeswax,  and  tallow,  of  eaeh  L'  oz.  Hub  the 
starch  up  first  by  pourim,' on  sullieient  hoiliii-,'  water  for  that  pur- 
pose. It  makes  ixiots  ami  shoo  soit  and  pliable,  and  gives  a  splen- 
did appearance  to  old  stock  on  the  shelves. 

Black  Varnish  for  the  Edge. — Take  98  per  cent,  alcohol,  1 
pint;  shellac,  3  oz.;  resin,  2  oz. ;  pine  turpentine,  1  oz.;  lamp-black, 
^  oz.;  mix;  and  when  the  gums  :iri.  all  cut,  it  is  ready  for  use. 
This  preparation  makes  a  most  splendid  appearance  when  applied 
to  hoot,  shot?,  or  harness  edge,  ami  is  equally  applicable  to  cloth  or 
wood,  where  a  gloss  is  required  after  being  painted. 

Best  Harness  Varnish  Extant.— Alcohol,  1  gallon;  white  tur- 
pentine, l>$lbs.;gum  shellac,  1^  Ibs.;  Venice  turpentine,  1  gill. 
Let  them  stand  by  the  stove  till  the  gums  are  dissolve.!,  then  add 
sweet  oil,  1  gill;  and  color  if  you  wish  it  with  lamp-black,  2  oz. 
This  will  not  crack  like  the  old  varnish. 

Another.— Isinglass,  or  gelatine,  and  indigo,  of  each,  J^oz.; 
logwood,  4  oz. ;  soft  soap,  2  oz  ;  glue,  4  oz. ;  vinegar,  1  pint;  mix  by 
heat,  and  strain. 

Brilliant  French  Varnish  for  Leather.— Spirit  of  wine, 
%  pint;  vinegar,  5  pints;  gum  Senegal  in  powder,  %  lb.;  loaf  suu'ar, 
6  oz. ;  powdered  galls,  2  oz. ;  green  copperas,  4  oz.  Dissolve  the 
gum  and  sugar  in  the  water:  strain,  and  put  on  a  slow  fire,  but 
don't  boil;  now  put  in  the  galls,  copperas,  and  the  alcohol;  stir  well 
for  five  minutes;  set  off;  and  when  nearly  cool  strain  through  flan- 
nel, and  bottle  for  use.  It  is  applied  with  a  pencil  brush.  Most 
superior. 

Liquid  Japan  for  Leather.— Molasses,  8  Ibs.;  lamp-black,  1  lb.; 
sweet  oil,  1  lb.;  gum  arabic,  1  lb.;  isinglass,  1  lb.  Mix  well  in  32 
Ibs.  water;  apply  heat;  when  cool,  add  1  quart  alcohol;  an  ox's  gall 
will  improve  it 

Waterproof  Oil  Blacking.— Camphene,  1  pint;  add  all  the 
India  rabbet  it  will  dissolve;  currier's  oil,  1  pint;  tallow,  1  Ibs.' 
lamp-black,  2  oz.  Mix  thoroughly  by  heat 

Shoemaker's  Heel  Ball.—' Beeswax,  8  07.;  tallow,  1  07.;  melt, 
and  add  powdered  gum  arabic,  1  oz.,  and  lamp-black  to  color. 

Cement  for  Leather  or  Rubber  Soles  and  Leather  Belt- 
ing.— Gutta  perdia,  1  lb.;  India  rubber,  4  oz.;  pitch,  2  oz.;  shellac, 
1  oz. ;  oil,  2  oz.;  melt  and  use  hot. 

Oil  Paste  Blacking.— Ivory  black,  4  lhs.;  molasses,  3  Ibs.; 
sweet  oil,  1  lb. ;  oil  vitriol,  3  Ibs. ;  mix,  and  put  in  tins. 


jgwood. 

ya™J8h--Tunneric,  1  drachm;  gamboge,  1  drachm;  tur- 
pentine, 2  pints;  shellac,  5  oz.;  sandarach,  5  oz.;  dragon's  blood,  8 


RECEIPTS   FOR   MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.     227 

drachms;  thin  mastic  varnish,  8  oz.;  digest  with  occasional  agitation 
fur  fourteen  days;  then  set  aside  to  fine,  and  pour  off  the  clear. 

Grain  Black  for  Harness  Leather.—  First  stain  in  tallow; 
then  take  spirits  turpentine,  1  pint;  cream  of  tartar,  1  oz.;  soda,  1 
oz.  ;  gum  shellac,  \$  oz.  ;  thick  paste  reduced  thin,  2  quarts.  Mix 
well.  This  will  finish  12  sides. 

Stains  for  Wood  and  Leather.—  RED.—  Brazil  wood,  11  parts: 
alum,  4  parts;  water,  85  parts.    Boil. 
BLUE.—  Logwood,  7  parts;  blue  vitriol,  1  part;  water,  22  parts- 


.—  Logwood,  9  parts;  sulphate  of  Iron,  1  part;  water,  25 
parts.  Boil. 

GREEN.—  Verdigris,  1  part;  vinegar,  3  parts.    Dissolve. 

YELLOW.—  French  berries,  7  parts;  water,  10  parts;  alum,  1  part 
Boil. 

PURPLE.—  Logwood,  11  parts;  alum,  3  parts;  water,  29  parts. 


Deer  Skins.—  TANNFNO  AND  BUFFTNO  FOR  GLOVES.—  For 
each  skin  take  a  bucket  of  water,  and  put  into  it  1  quart  of  lime; 
let  the  skin  or  skins  lie  in  from  3  to  4  days;  then  rinse  in  clean 
water,  hair,  and  grain;  then  soak  them  in  cold  water  to  get  out  the 
glue;  now  scour  or  pound  in  good  soap-suds  for  half  an  hour;  after 
which  take  white  vitriol,  alum,  and  salt,  1  tablespoon  of  each  to  a 
skin;  these  will  be  dissolved  in  sufficient  water  to  cover  the  skin. 
and  remain  in  it  for  24  hours;  wring  out  as  dry  as  convenient,  and 
spread  on  with  a  brush  ','  pint  of  currier's  oil,  and  hang  in  the  sun 
about  two  day-;:  after  which  you  will  scour  out  the  oil  with  soap- 
suds, and  hang  out  again  until  perfectly  dry;  then  pull  and  work 
them  until  they  are  soft;  and  if  a  reasonable  time  does  not  make 
them  soft,  scour  in  suds  again  as  before,  until  complete.  The  oil 
may  be  saved  by  pouring  or  taking  it  from  the  top  of  the  suds,  if 
left  standing  for  a  short  time.  The  buff  color  is  given  by  spreading 
yellow  ochre  evenly  over  the  surface  of  the  skin,  when  finished, 
rubbing  it  in  well  with  a  brush. 


WITH  ACTD.—  After  having  removed  the  hair,  scouring, 
soaking,  and  pounding  in  the  suds,  Ac.,  as  in  the  last  recipe,  in 
place  of  the  white  vitriol,  alum,  and  salt,  as  there  mentioned,  take 
oil  of  vitriol  (sulphuric  acid,)  and  water,  equal  parts  of  each,  and 
thoroughly  wet  the  flesh  side  of  the  skin  with  it,  by  means  of  a 
sponge  or  cloth  upon  a  stick;  then  folding  up  the  skin,  letting  it  lie 
for  20  minutes  only,  having  ready  a  solution  of  sal-soda  and  water, 
say  1  Ib.  to  a  bucket  of  water,  and  soak  the  skin  or  skins  in  that 
for  two  hours,  when  you  will  wash  in  clean  water,  and  apply  a  little 
dry  salt,  letting  lie  in  the  salt  over  night,  or  that  length  of  time; 
then  remove  the  flesh  with  a  blunt  knife,  or,  if  doing  business  on  a 
large  scale,  by  means  of  the  regular  beam  and  flesh-knife;  when 
dry  or  nearly  so,  soften  by  pulling  and  rubbing  with  the  hands,  and 
also  with  a  piece  of  pumice-stone.  This,  of  course,  is  the  quickest 


228    RECEIPTS   FOR   MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

way  of  tanning,  and  by  only  wetting  the  skins  with  the  acid,  and 
soaking  them  out  in  20  minutes,  they  are  not  rotted. 

Another  Method.— Oil  of  vitriol,  ^  oz.;  salt,  1  teacup;  milk 
sufficient  to  handsomely  cover  tin-  skin,  not  •  •X'-ceding  :i  qN.,  \v;inn 
the  milk,  then  add  the'  salt  and  vitriol;  stir  tin- skin  in  the  liquid 
40  minutes,  keeping  it  warm;  then  dry,  and  work  it  as  directed  in 
No.  4. 

Liquid  Red.— Channellers  will  find  that  no  better  or  richer 
color  lor  their  purposes  can  hi-  got  than  tin-  ivd  ink  described  under 
the  Grocer's  Deportment,  diluted  to  the  n-qnin-d  shade.  Fur 
color  for  the  bottoms  of  shoes  use  tincture  of  red  sunders. 

Bridle  Stain.— Skimmed  milk,  1  pint;  spirits  of  salts,  %  oz.; 
spts.  of  red  lavender,  »•$  o/.. ;  gum  aral>ic,  1  o/..;  and  the  juice  of  2 
lemons;  mix  well  togMher.and  fork  I'oriiM-;  apply  with  a  a^-onge; 
when  dry,  polish  with  a  brush  or  a  piece  of  tlaiiuel.  If  wished 
paler,  put  in  less  red  lavender. 

Process  of  Tanning  Calf,  Kip,  and  Harness  Leather  in 
from  Six  to  Thirty  Days.— For  a  l'_'  11).  calf  skin,  take  :?  Ibs.  of 
terra  japoniea,  common  salt  '2  Ihs. ;  alum,  1  !!>.;  put  them  into  a 
copper  kettle  with  sufficient  water  to  dissolve,  the  whole  by  boiling. 
The  skin  will  be  limed,  haired,  and  treated  everv  way  as  for  the 
old  process,  when  it  will  be  put  it  into  a  vessel  with  sufficient  water 
to  cover  it,  at  which  time  yon  will  put  in  1  pint  of  the  composition 
stirring  it  well,  adding  the  same  amount  each  night  and  morning 
for  3  days,  when  you  will  add  the  whole,  handling  2  or  •*  times  daily 
all  the  time  tanning;  you  can  continue  to  use  the  tanning  liquid  by 
adding  half  the  quantity  each  time,  l>v  keeping  these  proportions  for 
any  amount.  If  you  desire  to  give  a  bark  color  to  the  leather,  you 
will  put  in  1  Ib.  o'f  Sicily  sumac;  kip  skins  will  require  al>out  20 
days,  light  house  hides  for  harness  30  days,  calf  skins  from  6  to  10 
days  at  most. 

To  Tan  Raw  Hide.—  When  taken  from  the  animal,  sprond  it 
flesh  side  up;  then  put  2  parts  of  >altpetre  and  alum  combined, 
make  it  fine,  sprinkle  it  evenly  over  the  surface .  roll  it  up.  let  it 
alone  a  few  days  till  dissolved;  then  takeoff  what  flesh  remains, 
and  nail  the  skin  to  the  side  of  a  barn  in  the  sun;  stretch  tight,  to 
make  it  soft  like  harness  leather,  put  neat's  foot  oil  on  it,  fa-ten  it 
up  in  the  sun  again;  then  rub  out  all  the  oil  you  can  with  a  wedge- 
shaped  stick,  and  it  is  tanned  with  the  hair  on. 

French  Finish  for  Leather.— Take  a  common  wooden  pail- 
ful of  scraps  (the  legs  and  pates  of  calf  skins  are  best),  and  put  a 
handful  each  of  salt  and  alum  upon  them,  and  let  them  stand  3 
days;  then  boil  them  until  they  get  a  thick  paste;  in  using,  you 
will  warm  it,  and  in  the  fir^t  application  put  a  little  tallow  with  it, 
and  for  the  second  time  a  little  soft  soap,  and  use  it  in  the  regular 
way  of  finishing,  and  your  leather  will  be  soft  and  pliable,  like 
French  leather. 

French  Patent  Leather.— Work  into  the  skin  with  appro- 
priate tools  3  or  1  successive  coatings  of  drying  varnish,  made  by 


BECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    229 

boiling  linseed  oil  with  white  load  and  litharge,  in  the  proportion  of 
1  Ib.  of  each  of  the  latter  to  1  gal.  of  the  former,  and  adding  a 
portion  of  chalk  or  ochre,  each  coating  bring  thoroughly  dried 
DefON  the  application  of  tin-  rest.  Ivory  black  is  then  substituted 
for  the  chalk  or  ochre,  the  varnish  thinned  with  spirits  of  turpentine, 
and  five  additional  applications  mado  in  the  same  manner  as  before, 
except  that  it  H  put  on  thin  and  networked  in.  The  leather  is 
rubbed  down  with  pumice  stone,  in  powder,  and  then  placed  in  a 
room  at  90  degrees,  out  of  the  way  of  dust  The  last  varnish  is 
prepared  by  boiling  \4  Ib.  of  asphaltum  with  10  Ibs.  of  the  drying 
oil  used  in  the  first  stage  of  the  process,  and  then  stirring  in  5  Ibs. 
copal  varnish  and  10  Ibs.  of  turpentine.  It  must  have  1  mouth's  age 
before  using. 

Cheap  Tanning  without  Bark  or  Mineral  Astringents. 
— The  astringent  liquor  is  composed  of  water,  17  gals.;  Aleppo 
galls,  u  lb. ;  Bengal  catochn,  !>•£  oz.  and  5  Ibs.  of  tormentil,  or 
septfoil  root.  Powder  the  ingredients,  and  boil  in  the  water  1  hour; 
men  cool,  put  in  the  skins  (which  must  be  prepared  by  being 


plunged  into  a  preparation  of  bran  and  water  for  2  days  pre- 
viously); handle  them  frequently  during  the  first  3  days,  let  thi 
alone  the  next  3  days,  then  handle  3  or  4  times  in  one  day: 
them  lie  undisturbed  for  25  days  more,  when  the  process  will  be 


Canadian  Process.— The  Canadians  make  4  liquors  in  using 
the  juponica. 

The  FFRST  liquor  Is  made  .by  dissolving,  for  20  sides  of  upper, 
15  Ibs.  of  terra  laponica  in  sufficient  water  to  cover  the  upper 
being  tanned.  The  SECOND  liquor  contains  the  same  amount  of 
japonica,  and  8  Ibs.  of  saltpetre  also.  The  THIRD  contains  20  Ibs. 
of  japonica,  and  4^  Ibs.  of  alum.  The  FOURTH  liquor  contains 
only  15  Ibs.  of  japonica,  and  1V$  Ibs.  of  sulphuric  acid;  nnd  the 
leather  remains  4  days  in  each  liquor  for  upper;  and  for  sole  the 
quantities  and  time  are  lx>th  doubled.  They  count  50  calf  skins  in 
place  of  20  sides  of  upper,  but  let  them  lie  in  each  liquor  only  3 
days. 

Fifty  Dollar  Recipe  for  Tanning  Pur  and  Other  Skins. 
— Remove  the  legs  and  useless  parts,  soak  the  skin  soft,  and  then 
remove  the  fleshy  substances,  and  soak  it  in  warm  water  one  hour. 
Now  take  for  each  skin  borax,  saltpetre,  and  Glauber-salt,  of  each 
X  oz.  and  dissolve  or  wet  with  soft  water  sufficient  to  allow  it  to  be 
spread  on  the  flesh  side  of  the  skin.  Put  it  on  with  a  brush,  thickest 
in  centre  or  the  thickest  part  of  the  skin,  and  double  the  skin  together, 
flesh  side  in;  keeping  it  in  a  cool  place  for  24  hours,  not  allowing  it 
to  freeze.  Then  wash  the  skin  clean,  and  take  sal-soda,  1  oz.; 
borax,  %  oz.;  refined  soap,  2  oz.;  melt  them  slowly  together, 
being  careful  not  to  allow  them  to  boil,  and  apply  the  mixture  to 
the  flesh  side  as  at  first.  Boil  up  again,  and  keep  in  a  warm  place 
for  24  hours;  then  wash  the  skin  clean  again,  as  above,  and  have 
saleratua,  2  oz.;  dissolved  in  hot  rain  water  sufficient  to  well 


230    RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

saturate  the  skin;  then  take  alum,  4  oz.;  salt,  8  oz.;  and  dissolve 
also  in  hot  rain  water;  when  sufficiently  cool  to  allow  the  handling 
of  it  without,  scalding,  put  in  the  skin  for  12  hours;  then  wring  out 
the  water,  and  hang  up  for  12  hours  more  to  dry.  Repent  this  la>t 
soaking  and  drying  two  or  three  times,  according  to  UP-  deMivd 
softness  of  the'skin  when  finished.  Lastly,  finish  by  pulling  and 
working,  and  finally  by  rubbing  with  a  piece  of  pumice  stone  and 
fine  sand  paper.  This  works  like  a  charm  on  sheep  skins,  fur 
skins,  dog,  wolf,  bear  skins,  &c. 

French  Polish  or  Dressing  for  Leather.— Mix  2  pints  best 
vinegar  with  1  pt  soft  water;  stir  into  it  \^  lb.  glue,  broken  up,  lj 
Ib.  logwood  chips,  »^  oz.  of  finely  powdered  indigo,  \£  oz.  of  the 
l>c-t  s.il't  soap,  }£  07,.  of  isinglass;  put'the  mixture  over  tiie  lire,  and 
let  it  boil  ten  minutes  or  more:  then  strain,  bottle  and  cork.  When 
cold,  it  is  fit  for  use.  Apply  with  a  sponge. 

Currier's  Size.— Take  of  si7ing,  1  qt.;  soft  sonp,  1  pill;  stuffing, 
1  gill;  sweet  milk,  ' ',  pt.;  boil  the  si/.ing  in  water  to  a  proper  con- 
sistenee,  strain,  and  add  the  other  ingredients;  and  when  tho- 
roughly mixed,  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Currier's  Paste.— FIRST  COAT.— Take  of  water,  2  qK;  flour, 
%  pint;  Castile  soap,  1  oz.:  make  into  paste.  SKI  o\n  Co.vr.— Takn 
of  first  paste,  }/y  pt.;  gum '  tragacanth,  1  gill;  water,  1  pt.;  mix  all 
together.  This  will  finish  eighteen  sides  of  upper. 

Currier's  Skirting.— This  is  for  finishing  skirting  and  HIP  flesh 

of  harness  lealher,  in  imitation  of  oak  tanning.  Take  of  chrome 
yellow,  *f,  lb.;  yellow  ochre,  1  lb. ;  cream  of  tartar,  1  o/.. ;  ,-uda,  "j 
oz. ;  paste,  5  qts. ;  mix  well.  This  will  finish  twelve  sides. 

Skirting.— For  the  grain  to  imitate  oak  tan.  Take  of  chrome 
yellow,  'i  11).;  yellow  ochre,  i.<  lb.;  cream  of  tartar,  1  oz.;  soda,  1 
<r/..,  pMW.  -  ii|s.;  spirits  of  turpentine,  1  pt;  mix  well.  This  will 
finish  twelve  sides. 

Dyes  for  Leather.— BLUE.— For  each  skin,  take  1  pz.  of  in- 
digo, put  it  into  boiling  water,  and  let  it  Maud  one  night;  then 
warm  it  a  little,  and  witii  a  brush  smear  the  skin  twice  over,  and 
finish  the  same  as  the  red. 

RED. — After  the  skin  has  been  properly  prepared  with  sheep, 
pigs'  dung.  Arc.,  then  take  strong  alum  water,  and  sponge  over 
your  skin;  when  dry,  boil  a  strong  gall  liquor  (it  cannot  be  too 
strong);  then  boil  a  strong  Ura/.il  wood  liquor  (the  stronger  the 
better);  take  a  sponge,  dip  it  into  your  liquor,  and  sponge  it  over 
your  skin;  repeat  this  till  it  DOOMS  to  a  full  red.  To  finish  your 
skin,  take  the  white  of  eggs,  and  a  little  gum  dragon,  mix  the" two 
together  in  half  a  gill  of  water,  sponge  over  your  skin,  and,  when 
dry,  polish  off. 

Vi  i.i.aw.— 1.  Infuse  quercitron  bark  in  vinegar,  in  which  put  a 
little  alum,  and  brush  over  your  skin^  with  the  infusion:  finish  tho 
same  as  the  red.  -2.  Take  1  pt.  of  whisky,  4  07..  turmeric:  mix  them 
well  together;  when  settled  sponge  your  skins  over,  and  finish  as 
above. 

BLACK.— Put  your  skin  on  a  clean  board,  sponge  it  over  with  gall 
and  sumach  liquors,  strong;  then  take  a  strong  logwood  liquor, 
sponge  it  over  tliree  or  four  times;  then  take  a  little  copperas,  mix 


RECEIPTS  FOB  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    231 

it  in  the  logwood  liquor;  sponge  it  over  your  skin,  and  finish  it  the 
same  as  the  red. 

PURPLE. — First  sponge  with  the  alum  liquor  strong,  then  with 
logwood  liquor  strong;  or  mix  them  both,  and  boil  thorn,  and  sponge 
\\iih  th««  liquor,  finish  the  same  as  the  red.  The  pleasing  hues  of 
vellow,  brown,  or  tan  color,  are  readily  imparted  to  leather  by  the 
following  simple  process:  Steep  saffron  in  boiling  water  for  a 
ninnlwr  of  hours,  wet  a  sponge  or  soft  brush  in  the  liquor,  and 
with  it  smear  the  leather.  The  Quantity  of  saffron,  as  well  as  of 
water,  will,  of  course,  depend  on  how  much  dye  may  be  wanted, 
and  their  relative  proportions  to  the  depth  of  color  required. 

To  Marble  Books  or  Paper.—  Marhlfng  of  books  or  paper 
Is  performed  thus:  Dissolve  four  ounces  of  gum  arable  in  two  quarts 
of  fair  water;  then  provide  several  colors  mixed  with  water  in  pots 
or  shells,  and  with  pencils  peculiar  to  each  color;  sprinkle  them  by 
way  of  intermixture  upon  the  gum  water,  which  must  be  put  into 
n  trough,  or  some  broad  vessel;  then,  with  a  stick,  curl  them,  or 
draw  them  out  in  streaks  to  as  much  variety  as  may  be  done. 
Having  done  this,  hold  your  book  or  books  close  together,  and  only 
dip  the  edges  in,  on  the  top  of  the  water  and  colors,  very  lightly; 
which  done,  take  them  off,  and  the  plain  impression  of  the  colors, 
in  mixture,  will  be  upon  the  leaves;  doing  as  well  the  ends  as 
the  front  of  the  book  in  like  manner,  and  afterwards  glazing  the 
colors. 

Bookbinder's  Varnish.— vShellnc,  eight  parts;  gnm  benzoin, 

3  parts;   gum   mastic,   two  parts;    bruise,  and  digest  in  alcohol, 
forty-eight    parts;    oil    of   lavender,    one-half    part.      Or    digest 
shellac,  four  parts;  gum  mastic,  two  parts;  gum  aammer  and  white 
turpentine,  of  each,  one  part;  with  alcohol  (95  per  cent.,)  twenty- 
eight  parts. 

Red  Sprinkle  for  Bookbinder's  Red.— Brazil  wood  (ground,) 

4  parts;  alum,  1  part;  vinegar,  4  parts;  water,  4  parts.     Boil  until 
reduced  to  7  parts,  then  add  a  quantity  of  loaf  sugar  and  gum; 
bottle  for  use. 

BLUE.— Strong  sulphuric  acid,  8  oz.;  Spanish  Indigo,  powdered, 
2  oz.;  mix  in  a  bottle  that  will  hold  a  quart,  and  place  it  in  a  warm 
bath  to  promote  solution.  For  use,  dilute  a  little  to  the  required 
color  in  a  tea-cup. 

BLACK. — No  better  black  can  be  procured  than  that  made  by  the 
receipt  for  surface  blacking,  in  this  work,  which  see. 

ORANGE  COLOR. — Ground  Brazil  wood,  16  parts;  annotto,  4  parts; 
alum,  sugar,  and  gum  arabic,  each  1  part;  water,  70  parts;  boil, 
strain,  and  bottle. 

PURPLE.— Logwood  chips,  4  parts;  powdered  alum,  1  part;  soft 
water,  24  parts;  boil  until  reduced  to  10  parts,  and  bottle  for  use. 

(iiu.iN.— French  berries,  1  part;  soft  water,  8  parts.  Boil  and 
add  a  little  powdered  alum;  then  bring  it  to  the  required  shade  of 
gre-'ii  by  addinsr  liquid  blue. 

BBOWTT.— ^Logwood  chips,  1  part;  annotto.  1  part;  boil  in  water, 
6  parts;  if  too  light,  add  a  piece  of  copperas  the  size  of  a  pea. 

Tree  Marble.— A  marble  in  the  form  of  trees  may  be  done  by 


232    RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

bendine  the  l>oards  a  little  on  the  centre,  using  the  same  method  as 
th.-  common  marble,  having  the  covers  previously  pivpaivd.  The 
end  of  a  caudle  may  be  rubbed  on  diuVient  parts  ol  tin-  board  to 
form  knots. 

I  iiri :-  M AKULE. — Color  the  cover  with  spirits  of  wine  and  t  ormerte, 
then  ]>laee  on  rice  in  a  regular  manner,  .(lirow  on  a  v<-ry  line 
sprinkle  of  copperas  water  till  the  cover  is  nearly  black,  and  let  it 
remain  till  dry.  The  cover  may  In-  spotted  with  the  red  liquid  or 
pota>h  water.  Very  freelv,  before  the  riee  is  thrown  off  the  boards. 

Si>orn-:i>  MAKHLE  FOR  BOOKS,  ETC.— After  the  fun-ed^e  of  the 
book  is  cut,  let  it  remain  in  the  press,  and  throw  on  linseeds  in  a 
regular  manner,  sprinkle  the  edge  with  any  dark  color  till  the  paper 
is  covered,  then  shake  off  the  seeds.  Various  colors  may  be  used; 
the  edge  may  be  colored  with  yellow  or  red  belore  throw-in-.:  on  the 
seeds,  and  sprinkling  with  blue.  The  seeds  will  make  a  tine  fancy 
edge  when  place  1  very  thick  on  different  parts,  with  a  few  slightly 
thrown  on  the  spices  between. 

JAPAN  COLORING  FOR  LEATHER,  BOOK-CO vi  us  KTC.— After  the 
book  is  covered  and  dry,  color  the  cover  with  potash  water  mixed 
with  a  little  paste;  give  two  Lrood  coats  of  Ura/.il  wash,  and  gla/.e  it; 
put  the  book  between  the  hands,  allowing  the  boards  to  slope  a 
little;  dash  on  copperas  water,  then  with  a  sponge  full  of  red  liquid 
press  out  on  the  back  and  on  different  parts  large  drops,  which  will 
run  down  each  board  and  make  a  line  shaded  red,  when  the  cover 
is  dry,  wash  it  over  two  or  three  times  with  Brazil  wash  to  give  it  a 
bnghter  color.  See  the  various  dyes  for  leather  under  that  head. 

To  make  Paper  into  Parchment. — To  produce  this  transforma- 
tion, take  unsized  paper  and  plunge  it  into  a  solution  of  two  parts 
of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  combined  with  1  part  water;  with- 
draw it  immediately,  and  wash  it  in  dean  water,  and  the  chan 
complete.  It  is  now  fit  for  writing;  for  the  acid  supplies  tV  want 
of  size,  and  it  becomes  so  strong  that  a  strip  2  or  3  inches  wide  will 
bear  from  60  to  80  Ibs.  weight,  while  a  like  strio  of  parchment  will 
bear  only  about  i'5  Ibs. 

Best  Cement  for  Aquaria.— It  is  the  same  as  that  used  in  con- 
structing the  tanks  of  the  Zoological  (iardens.  London.  One  part, 
by  measure,  say  a  gill  of  litharge;  1  gill  of  plaster  of  Paris;  1  gill  of 
dry,  white  sand;  %  of  a  gill  of  finely  powdered  resin.  Sift,  and 
keep  corked  tight  until  required  for  use,  when  it  is  to  be  made  into 
a  putty  by  mixing  in  boiled  oil  (linseed)  with  a  little  patent  drier 
added"  Never  use  it  after  it  has  been  mixed  (that  is,  with  the  oil) 
over  fifteen  hours.  This  cement  can  be  used  for  marine  as  well  as 
fresh-water  aquaria,  as  it  resists  the  action  of  salt  water.  The  tank 
can  be  used  iuiuiediately,  but  it  is  best  to  give  it  three  or  four  hours 
to  dry. 

Horn  in  Imitation  of  Tortoise  Shell. — First  steam  and  then 

press  the  horn  into  proper  shapes,  and  afterwards  lav  the  following 
mixture  on  with  a  small  brush,  in  imitation  of  the  mottle  of  tortoise- 
shell:  Take  equal  parts  of  quick-lime  and  litharge,  and  mix  with 
strong  soap-lees;  let  this  remain  until  it  is  thoroughly  dry;  brush 
off,  and  repeat  two  or  three  times  if  necessary.  Soch  para  as  are 
required  to  be  of  a  reddish  brown  should  be  covered  with  a  mixture 
of  whiting  aud  the  stain. 


RECEIPTS  FOB  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    233 

Dyes  for  Ivory,  Horn,  and  Bone.— BLACK.— 1.  Lay  the  articles 
fOTMTCnU  hours  in  a  stmnj:  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  and  ex- 
])(.<«•  t..  tin-  liirht.  •-'.  Boil  the  article  for  some  time  in  a  strained 
drcoetion  of  logwood,  and  then  steep  it  in  a  solution  of  per-sulphate 
or  acetate  of  iron.  3.  Immerse  frequently  in  ink  until  of  sufficient 
depth  of  color. 

i'.u  i;.— 1.  Immerse  for  some  time  in  a  dilute  solution  of  sulphate 
of  imlii,"1.  partly  saturated  with  potash,  and  it  will  be  fully  stained. 
2.  Steep  in  a  strong  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper. 

(iuKKN.— 1.  Dip  blue-stained  articles  for  a  short  time  in  nitro- 
hydrochlorate  of  tin,  and  then  in  a  hot  decoction  of  fustic.  2.  Boil 
in  a  solution  of  verdigris  in  vim-gar  until  the  desired  color  is 
obtained. 

RED.— 1.  Dip  the  articles  first  in  a  tin  mordant,  used  in  dyeing, 
and  then  plunge  into  a  hot  decoction  of  Kra7.il  wood — half  a  pouna 
to  a  gallon  of  water — or  cochineal.  2.  Steep  in  red  ink  till  suffi- 
ciently stained. 

SCARLET.— Use  lac-dye  instead  of  the  preceding. 

VIOLET.— Dip  in  the  tin  mordant,  and  then  immerse  in  a  decoc- 
tion of  logwood. 

YELLOW.— Boil  the  articles  in  a  solution  of  alum,  1  Ib.  to  X  a 
gallon,  then  immerse  for  half  an  hour  in  the  following  mixture: 
Take  a  %  Ib.  of  turmeric,  and  a  M  Ib.  of  pearlash;  boil  in  1  gal. 
water:  when  taken  from  this,  the  bone  muse  be  again  dipped  in  the 
alum  solution. 

Etching  Fluid  for  Ivory.— Take  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  dilute 
muriatic  acid,  equal  parts:  mix.  For  etching  varnish  take  white 
wax,  2  parts;  tears  of  mastic,  2  parts:  mix. 

To  Gild  Ivory.— Immerse  it  in  a  solution  of  nitio-muriate  of 
gold,  and  then  expose  it  to  hydrogen  gas  while  damp.  Wash  it 
afterwards  in  clean  water. 

To  Soften  Ivory.— In  3  oz.  spirits  of  nitre,  and  15  oz.  of  spring 
water,  mixed  together,  put  your  ivory  to  soak;  and  in  three  or  four 
days  it  will  obey  your  fingers. 

To  Whiten  Ivory. Slack  some  lime  in  water;  put  your  ivory 

in  that  water,  after  l>eing  decanted  from  the  grounds,  and  boil  it 
till  it  looks  quite  white.  To  polish  it  afterwards,  set  it  in  the 
turner's  wheel;  and,  after  having  worked,  take  rushes  and  pumice 
stones,  subtile  powder,  with  water,  and  rub  it  till  it  looks  perfectly 
smooth.  Next  to  that,  heat  it  by  turning  it  against  a  piece  of  linen 
or  sheepskin  leather;  and,  when  hot,  rub  it  over  with  a  little 
whitening  diluted  in  oil  of  olive;  then,  with  a  little  dry  whitening 
alone;  finally  with  a  piece  of  soft  white  rag.  When  all  this  is  per- 
formed as  directed,  the  ivory  will  look  very  white. 

Another  Way  to  Bleach  Ivory. Take  2  handfuls  of  lime, 

slake  it  by  sprinkling  it  with  water;  then  add  3  pints  of  water,  and 
stir  the  wnole  together;  let  it  settle  ten  minutes,  and  pour  the  water 
into  a  pan  for  your  purpose.  Then  take  your  ivory  and  steep  it  in 
the  lime-water  for  24  hours,  uft<  r  which,  mil  it  in  a  strong  alum- 
water  for  1  hour,  and  dry  it  in  the  air. 


234    RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

To  Cut  and  Polish  Marble.— Tho  marble  saw  is  a  thin  plate 
df  soft  iron,  continually  supplied,  during  its  sawing  motion,  with 
water  ami  tin-  sharped  sand.  Th"  -awing  of  moderate  pieces  is 
performed  by  liainl;  but  that  of  large  slabs  i«,  most  economically 
done  by  a  proper  mill.  The  first  substance  used  in  the  polishing 
is  the  sharpest  sand,  which  mu-t  be  worked  with  till  the 
surlace  becomes  perfectly  Hat.  Then  a  second,  and  even  a  third 
sand,  of  Increasing  fineness  is  to  be  applied.  The  next  substance 
is  emery,  of  progressive  degrees  of  fineness;  after  which,  tripoli  is 
employed;  and  the  last  polMi  is  given  with  tin  putty.  The  body 
with  which  the  sand  is  rubbed  upon  the  marble  is  usually  a  plate 
of  iron;  but,  for  the  subsequent  process,  a  plate  of  lead"  is  used, 
with  line  sand  and  emery.  The  polishing  rubbers  are  coarse  linen 
cloths,  or  bagging,  wedged  tiuht  into  an  iron  planing  tool.  In 
every  step  of  the  operation,  a  constant  trickling  supply  of  water  is 
required. 

Alabaster,  Marble,  or  Stone  may  be  stained  of  a  yellow,  r. •«!. 
given.  Line,  purple,  black,  or  auyof  the  compound  co'lors,  by  the 
stains  used  for  wood. 

Powerful  Cement  for  Broken  Marble.— Take  gum  Arabic,  1 
Ib. ;  make  into  a  thick  mucilage;  add  to  it  powdered  planter  of  Paris, 
\%  Ibs.;  sifted  quick-lime,  5  oz.;  mix  well;  heat  the  marble,  and 
apply  the  mixture. 

Seven  Colors  for  Staining  Marble.— It  is  necessary  to  heat 
the  marble,  hot,  but  not  so  hot  as  to  injure  it,  the  proper  beat  being 
that  at  which  the  colors  nearly  boil.  BLUE.— Alkaline  indigo  dye, 
or  turnsole  with  alkali. 

RED. — Dragon's  blood  in  spirits  of  wine. 

YELLOW. — Gamboge  in  spirits  of  wine. 

GOLD  COLOR.— Sal-ammoniac,  sulphate  of  zinc,  and  verdigris, 
equal  parts. 

GRKEN. — Sap  green,  in  spirits  of  potash. 

BROWN. — Tincture  of  logwood. 

CRIMSON.— Alkanet  root  in  turpentine.  Marble  may  be  veined 
according  to  taste.  To  stain  marble  wtll  is  a  difficult  operation. 

Perpetual  Ink  for  Tombstones,  Etc. Pitch,  11  Ibs.;  lamp- 
black, 1  Ib. ;  turpentine  sufficient;  mix  with  heat. 

To  Clean  Old  Marble.— Take  a  bullock's  gall,  1  gill  of  soap 
lees,  half  a  gill  of  turpentine:  make  into  a  paste  with  pipe-Hay, 
apply  it  to  the  marble;  let  it  dry  a  day  or  two,  then  rub  it  off,  aiid 
it  will  appear  equal  to  new;  if  very  dirty,  repeat  the  application. 

To  Remove  Grease. Aqua  ammonia,  2  oz. ;  soft  water,  1  qt. ; 

saltpetre,  1  teaspooiiful:  shaving  soap  in  shavings,  1  o/.;  mix  all 
together;  dissolve  the  soap  well,  and  any  grease  or  dirt  that  cannot 
be  removed  with  this  preparation  nothing  else  need  be  tried  for  it. 

To  Clean  Marble. — Take  two  parts  of  common  soda,  1  pnrt 
pumice  stone,  anil  1  part  of  finely  powdered  chalk:  sift  it  through 
a  fine  sieve,  and  mix  it  with  water:  then  rub  it  well  all  over  the 
marble,  and  the  stains  will  be  removed:  then  wash  the  marble  over 
with  soap  and  water,  and  it  will  be  as  clean  as  it  was  at  first. 


RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    235 

To  make  a  Chemical  Barometer.— Take  a  long,  narrow  bottle, 
and  put  into  it  '2^  «lrs.  of  eamphor:  spirits  of  wine,  11  <lrs.  When 
th«-  i-ainphor  is  dissolved,  add  to  it  the  following  mixture:  Water,  9 
itpetre,  38  grs. ;  sal-ammoniac,  38  grs.  Dissolve  these  salts 
in  the  water  prior  to  mixing  with  the  camphorated  spirit;  then 
shake  all  well  together,  cork  the  bottle  well,  wax  the  top,  hut  after- 
wards make  a  very  small  aperture  in  the  cork  with  a  red-hot  nee- 
dle. By  observing  the  different  appearances  which  the  materials 
assume  as  the  weather  changes,  it  becomes  an  excellent  prbgnosti- 
cator  of  a  coming  storm  or  of  a  sunny  sky. 

"Waterproofing  for  Clothing.— Boiled  oil,  15  Ibs. ;  beeswax,  1 
Ib. ;  ground  litharge,  13  Ibs.;  mix,  and  apply  with  a  brush  to  the 
article,  previously  stretching  against  a  wall  or  on  a  table,  previously 
well  washing  and  drying  each  article  before  applying  the  com- 
position. 

To  Renew  Old  Silks.— Unravel  and  put  them  in  a  tub,  cover 
them  with  cold  water,  let  them  remain  one  hour;  dip  them  up  and 
down,  l>ut  do  not  wring;  hang  up  to  drain,  and  iron  while  very 
damp,  aud  it  will  look  beautiful 

Potter's  Invisible  Waterproofing  for  Clothing.  —  Tmbue 
the  cloth  on  the  wrong  side  with  a  solution  of  isinglass,  alum, 
and  soap  dissolved  in  water,  forming  an  emulsion  of  a  milky  thick- 
ness; apply  with  a  brush,  rubbing  in  well.  When  dry,  it  is  brushed 
on  the  wrong  side  against  the  grain,  and  then  gone  over  with  a 
brush  dipped  In  water;  afterwards  brushed  down  smooth. 

To  raise  a  Nap  on  Cloth. — Clean  the  article,  well;  soak  it  In 
cold  water  for  half  an  hour;  put  it  on  a  board,  and  rub  the  thread- 
bare parts  with  a  half-worn  hatter's  card  filled  with  flocks,  or  with 
a  teazle  or  a  prickly  thistle  until  a  nap  is  raised;  then  lay  the  nap 
the  right  way  with  a  hatter's  brush,  and  hang  up  to  dry. 

Black  Reviver  for  Cloth. — Bruised  galls,  1  Ib. ;  logwood,  2 
Ibs.;  green  vitriol,  %  Ib.;  water,  5  quarts;  boil  two  hours;  strain,  and 
it  is  ready  for  use. 

Trapper's  and  Angler's  Secret  for  Game  and  Fish. — A 
few  drops  of  oil  of  anise,  or  oil  rhodium,  on  any  trapper's  bait,  will 
entice  any  wild  animal  into  the  snare  trap.  India  cockle  mixed 
with  flour  dough,  and  sprinkled  on  the  surface  of  still  water,  will 
intoxicate  fish,  render  them  insensible;  when  coining  up  to  the  sur- 
face, they  can  be  lifted  into  a  tub  of  fresh  water  to  revive  them, 
when  they  may  be  used  without  fear. 

Easy  Method  of  Preventing  Moths  In  Purs  or  Woolens.— 
Sprinkle  the  furs  or  woolen  stufts,  as  well  as  the  drawers  or  boxes 
in  which  they  are  kept,  with  spirits  of  turpentine,  the  unpleasant 
scent  of  which  will  speedily  evaporate  on  exposure  of  the  stuffs  to 


the  air.    Some  persons  place  sheets  of  paper,  moistened  with  spirits 

ntine,  over,  under,  or  between  pieces  of  c 
it  a  very  effectual  method.      Many  woolen  drapers  put  bits  of  cam- 


phor, the  size  of  a  nutmeg,  in  'papers,  on  different  parts  of  the 
shelves  in  their  shops;  and  as  they  brush  their  cloths  every  two, 


236    RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

three,  or  four  months,  this  keeps  thorn  free  from  moths;  and  this 
should  be  done  in  boxes  where  furs,  A.-C.,  ;-re  put.  A  tallow  candle 
is  frequently  put  within  each  mult  when  laid  by. 

Clothing  Renovator. — Soft  water,  1  gal.;  make  a  stron 
tion  of  logwood  by  boiling  the  extract  with  tin-  water.  Strain; 
when  cool,  add  '_'  (>'/..;  gum  arahic  in  powder;  bottle,  cork  well,  and 
set  aside  for  use;  clean  the  coat  well  from  grease  and  dirt,  and  apply 
the  above  liquid  with  a  sponge  evenly.  Dilute  to  suit  the  color, 
and  hang  in  the  shade  to  dry;  afterwards  brush  the  nap  smooth, 
and  it  will  look  like  new. 

Waterproofing    for  Porous  Cloth. — Dissolve  21$  Ihs.   alum 

In  4  gals,  water;  dissolve  also,  in  a  separate  vessel  the  Htm 
of  acetate  of  load  in  the  same  quantity  of  water.  \Vh-n  both  an; 
•well  dissolved,  mix  the  solutions  together;  and,  when  the  sulphate. 
of  lead  resulting  from  this  mixture  has  been  precipitated  to  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel  in  th"  form  of  a  powder,  pour  off  the  solution, 
and  plunge  into  it  the  fabric  to  be  rendered  waterproof.  Wash 
and  rub  it  well  during  a  few  minutes,  and  hang  it  in  the  air  to  dry. 

How  to  Write  on  Glass  In  the  Snn.— Dissolve  chalk  in  aqua 
fortis  to  the  consistency  of  milk,  and  add  to  that  a  sirong  solu- 
tion of  silver.  Keep  this  in  a  glass  decanter  well  stopped.  Then 
cut  out  from  a  paper  the  letters  you  would  have  appear,  and  pa>te 
the  paper  on  the  decanter  or  jar.  which  you  are  to  place  in  the  sun 
in  such  a  manner  that  its  rays  may  pass  throng))  the  -paces  cut  out 
ot  the  paper,  ami  fall  on  the  surface  of  the  liquor.  The  part  of  the 
gla~s  through  which  the  rays  pass  will  turn  black,  while  that  under 
the  paper  will  remain  white.  Do  not  shake  the  bottle  during  the 
operation.  Used  for  lettering  jars. 

To  Transfer  Prints,  Etc.,  to  Glsss.— Take  of  gum  sanrtarnoh, 
4oz.;  mastic,  1  o/..;  Venice  turpentine,  1  ox.;  alcohol,  15  oz.  Digest 
in  a  bottle,  frequently  shaking,  and  it  is  ready  for  use.  Direction-,; 
Vsc,  if  possible,  pood  plate -glass  of  the  si/.e  of  the  picture  to  be 
transferred,  go  over  it  with  the  above  varnish,  beginning  at  one 
side,  press  down  the  picture  firmly  and  evenly  as  you  proceed,  so 
that  no  air  can  possibly  lodge  between;  put  aside,  and  let  it  dry  per- 
fectly, then  moisten  the  paper  cautiously  with  water,  and  remove 
it  piece-meal  by  rubbing  carefully  with  the  fingers;  if  managed 
nicely,  a  complete  transfer  of  the  picture  to  the  glass  will  be 
effected. 

Paper  for  Photographing. — Wash  the  paper  with  a  solution 
of  nitrate  of  silver,  ~>  grs.;  distilled  water,  ]4  oz.;  dry  the  paper, 
and  wash  it  with  iodide  of  potassium,  5  grs.;  distilled  water,  %  07..; 
dry  with  a  gentle  heat;  repeat  the  wash  with  the  silver  solution; 
and,  when  dry,  the  paper  is  ready  for  use.  The  sensitive  surface 
is  an  iodide  of  silver,  and  is  easily  affected  by  light. 

How  to  Photograph  on  Glsss.— Take  dry  saltpetre,  ^  o?..; 
strong  oil  vitriol,  ^  o/..;  mi::  in  a  f.r.nbler.  ad  i  -'0  Drains  of  dry  cot- 
tou  wool,  stir  with  a  glass  rod  five  minutes,  remove  the  cotton',  aud 


RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    237 

wash  from  all  traces  of  the  acid  in  four  or  five  waters;  then  drj 
carefully  under  li'0°.  This  is  gun  cotton.  To  make  collodion,  dis- 
solve  20  grs.  gun-cotton  in  6  oz.  sulphuric  ether,  to  which  add 
alcohol,  X  oz.;  let  it  stand  a  short  time,  and  pour  off  the  clear  intc 
bottle  No.  1  for  use.  In  bottle  Xo.  2,  put  1  oz.  alcohol,  and  as  much 
'm  h  !••  of  ammonium  as  it  will  dissolve;  then  add  as  much  iodide  of 
silver  (made  from  nitrate  of  silver  and  iodide  of  potassium)  as  the 
solution  will  take  up.  Get  another  bottle.  No.  3,  with  a  wide 
mouth;  into  it  put  1  oz.  out  of  No.  1,  to  which  add  15  or  20  drops 
out  of  No.  2.  The  collodion  thus  formed  is  call  collodio-iodide  ol 
silver.  Having  well  cleaned  a  plate  of  glass  of  the  size  of  the 
frame  in  your  camera,  coat  it  completely  and  very  evenly  on  one 
side,  by  pouring  the  collodion  on  the  centre  from  'the  bottle;  pour 
back  any  excess  of  liquid  from  one  corner  of  the  glass,  and  in  this 
way  you  coat  the  plate  in  a  uniform  manner.  To  prepare  the  plate 
thus  coated  for  the  camera,  plunge  it  carefully  and  quickly  into  a 
bath  of  the  following  proportions,  then  allow  it  to  remain  covered 
in  the  solution  ahout  two  minutes:  Distilled  water,  1  oz.;  nitrate  of 
silver,  HO  grs. ;  alcohol,  30  drops;  dissolve  and  filter.  Obtain  a  good 
focus,  place  the  plate  iu  the  frame  and  the  frame  in  the  camera, 
pull  up  the  slide  in  front,  and  expose  a  proper  length  of  time:  hav- 
ing closed  your  slide,  remove  the  frame  to  your  dark  room,  take  out 
the  plate,  and  develop  the  picture  with  the  following  solution,  hold- 
Ing  the  plate  perfectly  level,  the  collodion  side  upward,  and  pour- 
ing enough  of  it  on  the  plate  to  cover  it;  in  a  short  time  the  picture 
will  be  developed:  Water,  1  oz. ;  copperas,  14  grs. ;  saltpetre,  10  grs.; 
acetic  acid,  }4  drachm;  nitric  acid,  2  drops;  then  wash  with  water, 
and  pour  over  it  some  of  the  solution  of  hyposulphite  of  soda  made 
thus:  Water,  1  pt. ;  hyposulphate  of  soda,  4  oz.,  allow  it  to  remain 
for  two  minutes,  then  wash  off  thoroughly,  and  your  picture  is 
finished.  By  this  process,  a  most  beautiful  picture  is  obtained  in  a 
space  of  time  varying  from  a  fraction  of  a  second  up  to  15  seconds, 
with  the  most  perfect  detail  of  ail  the  parts. 


Bottle  Glass.— No.  1.  DARK  GREEN.— Fused  glauber-salts,  11 
Ibs.;  soaper's  salts,  12  IDS.;  waste  soap-ashes,  %  mishel;  silicious 
sand,  %cvit.;  glass-skimmings,  22  Ibs.;  broken  green  glass,  1  cwt. 
to  l«^  cwt. ;  basalt,  25  Ibs.  to  X  cwt 

No.  2.  PALE  GREEN.—  Pale  sand,  100  Ibs.;  kelp,  35 Ibs.;  lixivia- 
ted wood  ashes,  \\$  cwt.;  fresh,  do.,  40  Ibs.;  pipe-clay,  %  cwt.;  cul- 
let,  or  broken  glass,  \X  cwt. 

No.  3.  Yellow  or  white  sand,  120  parts;  woodashes,  80  parts; 
pearlashes,  20  parts;  common  salt,  15  parts;  white  arsenic,  1  part; 
very  pale. 

Crystal  Glass.— No.  1.  Refined  pot-ashes,  60  Ibs.;  sand,  120  Ibs.: 
chalk,  24  ll).s.;  !iilr«>  and  white  arsenic,  of  each  '2  Ibs.;  oxide  of 
manganese,  1  to  2  oz.  No.  2.  Pure  white  sand,  120  parts;  refined 
ashes,  70  parts;  saltpetre;  10  parts;  white  arsenic,  %  part;  oxide  of 
manganese,  *4  part.  No.  3.  Sand,  120  parts;  red  lead,  50  parts; 
purified  pearlaah,  40  parts;  nitre,  20  parts;  manganese,  %  part. 


238    RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

Flask   Glass  («/">''.    MfcUM.)— Pnn  -i!:<'i<ms  sand,   fil    parts; 

p.«!a-!i.  :!'.<   ]>!irls;  lime,    21    parts;    heavy  .-par,    J    part>;    oxide  of 
nianyaue.M',  4.  s. 

Best  German  Crystal  Glass.— Take  120  ]bs.  of  calcined  flints 
or  white  sail- 1;  he^t  pearl-ashes,  70  lh..;  sa'tpeiiv,  I  • 
\i  lb.;  and  .",  oz.  manganese.  No.  2.  (<  H> M-I.K.  )  Nmd  or  Hint,  120 
rlash,  4«;  ll>s.;  nitre.  7  li>s.;  arsenic,  6  Ibs.;  magnesia,  5  oz. 
This  will  require  a  long  continuance  in  the  furnace,  as  do  all  others 
•when  much  of  the  arsenic  is  used. 

Plate  Glass. — No.  1.  Pure  sand.  40  parts;  dry  carbonate  of  soda, 
26M  parts;  lime.  4  parts;  nitre,  1'J  parts;  broken  plate 
parts.  N'o.  i'.  UltE's. — Quart/.-saiid,  H»!>  parts;  c;i.lein,-(l  sulphate 
of  soda,  24  parts;  lime,  L'O  ]>arts;  cullet  of  sod.i-ijhiss,  i_'  purfs. 
No.  3.  VIENNA.— Sand,  100  parts;  calcined  sulphate  of  soda.  r,n 
parts;  lime,  20  parts;  charcoal,  i'^  parts.  N'o.  j.  FUKMH.— White 
quart/  sand  and  cullet,  of  eaeh  300  parts;  dry  carbonate  of  soda, 
100  parts;  slacked  lime,  43  parts. 

Crown  Glass.— No.  1.  Rand,  300  Ibs.;  soda-ash,  200  ;i,s.; 
lime,  30  to  :r>ll»s.;  20.)  to  :w  Ibs.  of  br..ken  ^'l.i->.  Nn.  2.  (I)oHK- 
MIAN.) — Pure  silicious  sand,  ('< •'•  parts;  jtotash,  22  parts;  lime,  12 
parts,  oxide  of  manganese,  1  part.  No.  3.  (Pnop.  SCHWI 
Pure  sand,  100  Ibs.;  dry  sulphate  of  soda,  50  parts;  dry  quicklime 
in  powder,  17  to  20  paits;  charcoal,  4  parts.  PRODUCT— White  and 
good. 

Best  Window  Glass.— No.  1.  Tako  of  white  sand,  fin  Ibs.; 
purified  pearlashes,  :;.)  ll»s.;  of  saltp.-tiv,  \:,  Ibs.;  of  borax,  1  lb.; 
of  arsenic,  '£  11).  This  will  be  very  clear  and  colorless  if  the  ingre- 
dients be  good,  and  will  not  be  very  dear.  No.  2.  (CHEAPER.) — 
White  sand,  GO  Ibs.;  unpurified  pearlashes,  25  Ibs.;  of  common 
salt,  10  Ibs.;  nitre,  5  lhs.;  arsenic,  2  UK.;  manganese,  1%  oz.  No.  3. 
COMMON  (iur.KN  WINDOW-GLASS.—  White  sand,  <iO  Ibs.;  unpuri- 
lied  !>earlashes,  30  Ibs.;  common  salt,  10  Ibs.;  arsenic,  2  Ibs.;  man- 
ganese, 2  oz. 

Looking  Glass  Plate.— No.  1.  Cleansed  white  sand.  r,0  Ibs.; 
pearlashes,  puriti-d,  2.1  Ibs.;  saltpetre,  i:.  H>s. ;  borax.  7  ll>->.  Tliis 
coini)ositiou  should  be  continued  lonij  in  th<-  fire,  which  should  be 
sometimes  Strong,  *nd  afterwards,  more  nio.lerate,  that  the  glass 
maybe  entirely  free  from  bubbles  before  it  be  worked.  Nn.  2. 
White  sand,  GO  Ibs.;  pearl-ashes.  20  Ibs.;  common  salt,  10  !!>•;.; 
nitre,  7  Ibs.;  borax,  1  lb.  This  ylass  will  run  with  as  little  heat  as 
the  former;  but  it  will  be  more  brittle,  and  refract  the  rays  of  light 
in  a  greater  decree.  No.  3.  Washed  white  sand,  (V)  Ibs'.;  purified 
pearl-ashes,  2.">  Ibs.;  nitre,  15  Ibs.;  borax,  7  Ibs.  If  properly  man- 
aged, this  glass  will  be  colorless. 

Window    Glass.— No.   1.    Dried    sulphate  of   soda,   11  Ibs.; 
BQaper-salt,   10  ibs.;  lixiviated  soap-waste,  ',;  bush.;  sand, 
Ibs.;  glass-pot  skimmings,  22  Ibs.;  brok-  :>   i  lass,  i  c\vt. 

No.  2.   (PALKR).—  White  sand,  GO  ll)s.;    pearlashes,  30  Ibs.;   com- 
mon salt,  10  Ibs.;  arsenic,  10  Ibs.;  oxide  of  manganese,  2  to  4  oz. 


RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    239 

No.  3.  (VERT  PALE.)— White  sand,  60  Ibs.;  good  potashes,  25  Ibs  • 
common  salt,  10  Ibs.;  nitre,  5  Ibs.;  arsenic,  2  Ibs.;  manganese-  2  to 
4  oz.  as  required;  broken  ptb  window-glass,  14  Ibs. 

Magic  Paper.  —  Take  lard  oil,  or  sweet  oil,  mixed  to  the 
consisfenceyof  cream,  with  either  of  the  following  paints,  the  color 
of  which  is  desired:  Prussian  blue,  lamp-black,  Venetian  red,  or 
chrome  preen,  either  of  which  should  be  rubbed  with  a  knife  on  a 
plate  or  stone  until  smooth.  Use  rather  thin  but  firm  paper;  put 
on  with  a  sjmnge,  and  wipe  off  as  dry  as  convenient;  then  lay  them 
between  uncolored  paper,  or  between  newspapers,  and  press  by 
laying  books  or  some  other  flat  substance  upon  them  until  the  sur- 
plus oil  is  absorbed,  when  it  is  ready  for  use. 

To  Make  Grindstones  from  Common  Sand.— River  sand, 
30  Ibs.;  shellac,  10  part*;  powdered  glass,  2  parts;  melt  in  an  iron 
pot,  and  cast  into  moulds. 

Printing  Rollers  are  made  of  glue  and  molasses,  with  somtv 
times  a  little  Spanish  white.  The  proportions  are  1  Ib.  glue  to  1 
pint  molasses.  Break  the  glue  to  pieces,  soak  for  24  hours  is  suffi- 
cient, then  melt  with  the  molasses,  and  cast  in  a  mould  previously 
oiled  to  prevent  it  from  sticking.  When  it  gets  hard  after  long  use 
remelt  it,  using  a  little  more  molasses. 

Savage's  Printing  Ink.— Pure  balsam  of  copaiba,  9  oz. ;  lamp- 
black, 3  oz.;  indigo  and  Prussian  blue,  each  5  drachms;  Indian  red, 
%  oz.;  yellow  soap,  3  oz.  Miz,  and  grind  to  the  utmost  smooth- 
ness. 


Holes  in  Millstones  are  filled  with  melted  alum,  mixing 
burr  sand  with  it.  If  the  hole  is  large,  put  some  pieces  of  burr-mill 
stones  in  it  first,  and  pour  in  melted  alum.  These  pieces  of  block 
should  be  cut  exactly  to  fit.  There  should  be  small  joints,  and 
fastened  with  plaster  of  Paris.  These  holes  should  be  cut  at  least 
4  inches  deep;  there  is  then  no  danger  of  their  getting  loose. 

Fitting  a  New  Back  in  an  Old  Millstone.  — Block  your 
stone  up  with  a  block  of  wood,  having  its  face  down  until  it  lies 
even,  solid,  and  perfectly  level;  then  pick  and  scrape  off  all  the 
old  plaster  down  to  the  face  blocks,  so  that  none  remains  but  what 
is  in  the  joints  of  the  face  blocks;  then  wash  these  blocks,  and  keep 
them  soaked  with  water.  Keep  a  number  of  pieces  of  burr  blocks, 
at  the  same  time,  soaked  with  water.  Take  a  pail  half  filled  with 
clean  water,  and  mixed  with  2  tablespoon luls  of  glue  water,  boiled 
and  dissolved;  mix  in  with  your  hand  plaster  of  Paris  until  it  bo 
thick  enough  that  it  will  not  run;  and,  breaking  all  the  lumps,  pour 
this  on  the  stone,  rubbing  it  in  with  your  hand;  the  stone  being  at 
the  same  time  damped;  and  place  small  pieces  of  stone  all  over  the 
joints  of  the  face  blocks;  you  then,  with  more  plaster,  mixed  hi  the 
16 


240    RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

same  way,  but  more  stiff,  with  this  and  pieces  of  burr  stones,  build 
walls  roiind  the  eye  and  verge  4  or  :>  inches  high,  leaving  the 
surface  uneven  ami  the  eye  larger,  as  it  v.ill  be  brought  to  its 
proper  size  by  the  last  operation.  It  is  better  to  build  u]>  the  wall 
of  the  running  stone  round  the  verge  for  3  inch.-*  without  any 
spalls,  so  that  the  holes  may  be  cut  in  to  balance  it.  If  you  \\i-ii 
to  make  your  stone  heavier,  you  will  take  small  pieee>  of  i'ron,  per- 
fectly clean  and  free  from  grease,  ami  lay  them  evenly  all  around 
the  s'tone  in  the  hollow  phuv  between  the  t\\o  \\alls  just  built;  and 
with  plaster  mixed  a  little  thicker  than  milk,  pour  in  under  and 
through  all  the  crevices  in  the  iron  until  the  surface  is  nearly  level 
with  the  two  walls.  If  the  stones  do  not  require  additional  \\.-ht 
added,  instead  of  iron  use  pieces  of  stone  the  same  way,  )ea\ing 
the  surface  rough  and  uneven.  Again,  as  before,  build  walls 
round  the  verge  of  the  stone,  and  round  tin-  eye  of  the  stone,  until 
they  are  within  li  inches  of  the  thickness  you  want  your  stones  tube, 
the  wall  round  the  eye  being  2  incbei  higher  than  that  round  the 
verge,  and  tilling  the  space  between  the  walls  with  stones;  and, 
pouring  in  planter  again,  make  it  nearly  level  with  the  walls,  but 
leaving  the  surface  rough  and  jagged,  to  make  the  plaster  adhere 
well  to  it.  Let  it  stand  until  the  back  is  dr\  and  perfectly  s.-t, 
when  you  raise  the  stone  upon  it<  edge,  ami,  with  a  trowel,  planter 
round  the  edge  of  the  stone  neatly,  giving  it  a  taper  of  %  inch 
from  the  face  to  the  back  of  the  stone.  When  cased  round  in  this 
way,  lay  the  stone  down  on  the  cock-head;  it  being  in  the  balance 
ryne,  but  the  driver  off,  then  raise  the  spindle,  and  balance  the 
stone  as  already  directed  before  putting  on  the  remainder  of  the 
back.  Then  have  a  tin  made  the  .si/..-  of  the  eye,  and  to  n  ach  from 
the  balance  ryne  to  th«- thickm-s-;  you  want  the  .stone  to  be  at  the 
eye.  This  tin  should  be  exaetiy  fitted  to  its  place,  and  made  fast; 
then  fit  a  hoop  of  wood  or  iron  round  the  verire.  having  the  upper 
edge  of  the  thickness  from  the  face  you  want  the  stone  to  be  at  the 
verge,  and  equal  all  round.  This  hoop  should  be  greased;  and  all 
the  cracks  round  it,  and  the  tin  in  the  eye,  being  -topped,  you  pour 
thin  plaster  (with  more  glue  water  then  in  previous  operations,  to 
prevent  it  from  setting  so  quickly,  and  to  give  time  to  finish  off  the 
back  correctly)  until  it  be  level  with  the  hoop  round  the  verge.  and 
with  a  straight  edge,  one  end  resting  on  the  hoop,  and  the  other 
end  resting  on  the  tin  at  the  eye;  then,  by  moving  it  round,  and 
working  the  plaster  with  a  trowel,  make  the  surface  of  the  back 
even  and  smooth  between  these  two  points.  The  hoop  is  then 
taken  off.  and  the  back  and  edges  planed  smooth;  then  lower  the 
spindle  until  your  runner  lies  solid,  and  put  your  band  or  hoop  on, 
it  being  first  made  nearly  red  hot,  and  taking  care  that  it  is  of  suffi- 
cient size  not  to  require  too  much  driving;  if  fitting  too  tightly,  it 
may  loosen  the  back  in  driving  it  to  its  proper  place.  It  'may  be. 
cooled  gently  by  pouring  water  on  it;  and,  when  cool,  it  should 
fit  tight 

Mill  Dams.— "Wlion  building  a  dam.  you  should  select  tho  most 
suitable  place.  If  you  can,  place  it  across  the  stream  near  a  rocky 
bluff,  so  that  tho  ends  of  the  dam  may  run  into  the  bluff.  This  will 
prevent  the  water  running  by  at  the"  ends  of  the  dam.  Build  your 
dam  strong;  if  this  is  not  done,  they  are  breaking  up  often,  causing 
ruinous  expense  in  money  and  loss  of  time. 


RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    241 

Rock  Dama  are  incomparably  the  best  in  use,  if  there  is  plenty 
of  material  at  hand  for  building,  and  a  rock  bottom  to  the  stream- 
If  there  is  not  a  rock  bottom,  you  should  dig  a  trench  in  the  bottom 
deep  enongh,  so  that  the  water  cannot  undermine  it.  This  should 
be  the  same  as  if  you  were  building  the  foundation  of  a  large  build- 
ing. The  wali  to  be  built  should  be  of  a  small,  circular  form,  so 
that  the  back  of  the  circle  should  be  next  to  the  body  of  water 
which  may  by  its  pressure  tighten  it.  To  secure  the  water  from 
leaking  through  at  the  ends  of  the  dam,  dig  a  ditch  deeper  than  the 
bottom  of  the  river;  then  fill  this  with  small  pieces  of  rock,  and  pour 
in  cement.  This  cement  is  made  of  hydraulic  cement,  and  is  made 
of  one  part  cement  to  five  parts  of  pure  sand.  It  will  effectually 
stop  all  crevices.  A  rock  dam,  if  well  built,  will  be  perfectly  tight. 
Use  as  large  rock  as  you  conveniently  can  move;  building  this  wall 
4  to  6  feet  thick,  according  to  the  length  of  the  dam,  with  jam  or 
buttresses  every  place  where  they  are  needed  to  strengthen  it. 
Make  true  joints  to  these  rocks,  especially  on  the  ends,  so  that  they 
may  join  close  together.  When  you  have  the  outside  walls  laid  in 
cement,  for  every  layer  fill  the  middle  up  with  pieces  of  small  rock, 
pouring  in  your  grout,  so  that  there  may  not  be  a  crevice  but  what 
is  filled.  If  there  is  any  crevice  or  hole  left  open,  the  water  will 
break  through,  wearing  it  larger  and  larger.  If  the  stream  is  wide 
and  large,  it  is  necessary  to  build  the  dam  in  two  sections,  which 
should  be  divided  by  a  waste  way,  necessary  for  the  waste  or  surplus 
water  to  run  over,  to  keep  the  "head  in  its  proper  place  or  height 
Let  each  section,  next  to  where  the  water  is  to  be  run  over,  be 
abutments,  built  to  strengthen  the  dam.  The  last  layer  of  rock,  on 
the  top  where  the  waste  water  runs  over,  should  project  5  or  6  inches 
over  the  back  of  the  dam,  so  that  the  water  may  not  undermine  it. 
This  last  layer  should  be  of  large  rocks,  and  jointed  true;  then  laid 
in  hydraulic  cement,  in  proportion  of  1  of  cement  to  3  of  sand. 
When  the  dam  is  built,  the  front  should  be  filled  up  with  coarse 
gravel  or  clay;  this  is  best  done  with  teams,  as  the  more  it  is  tramped 
the  more  durable  it  becomes. 

Frame  Dams.— In  building  a  frame  dam  commence  with  a  good 
foundation,  laying  the  first  sills  in  the  bottom,  of  sufficient  depth. 
They  should  be  large  square  timbers  that  will  last  in  the  water 
without  rotting.  Where  there  is  a  soft  foundation,  the  bottom  should 
first  be  made  level;  then  dig  trenches  for  the  mud  sills,  abont  7  or  8 
feet  apart,  lengthways  of  the  stream,  and  10  or  12  feet  long.  Into 
these  first  sills  other  sills  must  be  framed,  and  put  crosswise  of  tfhe 
stream,  6  or  8  feet  apart,  to  reach  as  far  across  the  stream  as  neces- 
sary. Then  two  outside  sills  should  be  piled  down  with  2-inch 
plank  driven  down  to  a  depth  of  4  or  5  feet.  If  this  can  be  done 
conveniently,  they  are  to  be  jointed  as  closely  as  possible.  It 
would  be  better  to  line  with  some  stuff  1  inch  thick;  then  with  posts 
their  proper  length,  about  12  or  14  inches  square,  which  should  be 
framed  into  the  uppermost  sills,  in  both  sides,  and  all  the  way 
across  the  dam,  from  bank  to  bank,  at  a  distance  of  6  feet  apart. 
Then,  with  braces  to  each  post,  to  extend  two-thirds  of  the  length 
of  the  post,  where  they  should  be  joined  together  with  a  lock,  in- 
stead of  a  mortise  and  tenon,  with  an  iron  bolt  of  1  or  \%  inches 
in  diameter,  going  through  both,  and  tightened  with  a  screw  and 


242    RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

nut.  When  mortises  and  tenons  are  used,  they  often  become  rot- 
ten and  useless  in  a  few  days.  Tin  -e  hr.iees  should  !«•  set  at  an 
angle  of  50  or  60°  with  the 'other  end  nn.Ttised  into  tlio  mud  sill. 
These  braces  require  to  be  about  »>  to  s  indies,  and  a^  long  a-  \»\i 
lind  necessary;  being  covered  with  dirt,  it  will  not  decay  fora  long 
time,  as  the  air  is  excluded.  Th-  ->.ild  be  capped  from 

one  to  the  other,  plate  fasliion.  The  posts  should  be  lined  with  '2 
or  2]4  inch  plank  on  tin-  insid".  pinned  to  the  plank,  and  should,  in 
the  middle,  he  Tilled  ill  with  dirt. 

If  the  stream  is  large  and  wide,  the  dam  should  be  built  in  two 
sections,  which  should  IK'  divided  by  a  waste-way  for  the  surplus 
water,  which  should  be  in  the  centre  of  the  dam,  and  sufficient  for 
all  the  waste-water  to  run  over.  Let  each  section  of  the  dam  form 
an  abutment  next  to  the  waste- way,  placinp  cells  or  sills  4  feet  apart 
the  length  of  the  waste-way;  in  each  of  these  sills,  posts  should  be 
framed  with  a  brace  for  the  sides.  The<.-  rows  (.f  potto,  standing 
across  the  dam,  will  form  the  sectional  abutments;  the  middle  one 
may  be  constructed  by  being  lengthways  of  the  stream,  with  -lore 
braces,  so  that  .they  will  not  be  in  the  way  of  driftwood  UMBtng 
down  the  stream;  it  being  necessary  fer  stio'ni:  pfoeefl  for  a  bridpe. 
Then  cover  the  sills  with  an  apron  of  2-inch  plank  joined  perfectly 
straight,  to  extend  30  or  40  feet  below  the  dam,  to  prevent  the 
undermining  of  the  dam.  The  planks  which  are  used  for  the  pur- 
pose of  lining  the  posts  which  form  the  abutments  of  each  section 
of  the  dam  and  the  ends  of  the  waste-way,  should  be  truly  pointed. 
so  as  to  prevent  any  leakage.  The  diim  b<  ing  built."  the  dirt 
should  be  filled  in  with  teams;  as  the  more  it  is  tramped  the  better. 
Clay  or  coarse  gravel  is  the  best.  Then  place  your  gate-,  on  the 
upper  side  of  the  waste-way,  the  si/.e  that  is  mY.  >>ai  \  to  a  level 
with  low-water  mark;  which  gates  are  not  to  be  rais'ed  except  in 
times  of  high  water,  as  the  proper  height  of  the  mill-pond  should 
be  regulated  by  boards  placed  over  the  gate  for  the  desired  head. 
as  the  water  should  be  allowed  to  pass  at  all  times  freelv  over 
them.  To  strengthen  the  dam,  if  you  think  neccssarv  "'-inch 
plank  may  be  used  in  lining  the  front  side  of  the  dam,  long  enough 
to  reach  from  the  bottom  of  the  stream  (on  an  inclined  plane,  and 
next  to  the  body  of  water)  to  the  top  of  the  dam,  and  filled  up 
nearly  to  the  top  of  the  dam  with  clay  or  gravel  well  tramped 
down. 


Brnsh  or  Log  Dams  are  very  often  used  in  small,  muddy 
streams.  When  the  bottom  of  the  stream  is  of  a  soft  nature;  take 
a  flat-boat  where  you  want  to  fix  your  dam,  and  drive  piles  the 
whole  length  of  the  stream,  about  3  or  4  feet  apart,  as  deep  as  you 
can.  Take  young  oak  saplings,  pointed  at  the  end,  for  the  pur- 
pose. If  you  can.  construct  a  regular  pile-driver,  similar  to  those 
in  use  for  making  trestle-work  on  the  railways.  The  weight  may 
be  pulled  up  by  horses  instead  of  an  engine. "  When  you  have  fin- 
ished driving  piles,  make  some  boxes  or  troughs  ,,f'o  or  3  jnch 
plank,  about  3  feet  wide  and  as  Ion-  as  the  plank  is.  Sink  tlie-e  in 
the  water,  the  length  of  the  dam.  dos-  to  the  piles,  l»v  loadino- 
them  with  rock,  until  they  are  at  the  bottom  of  the  stream  filling 
in  the  front  part  of  the  dam  with  dirt  and  hnnh.  n-arlv  to  the 
height  you  want  it.  This  kind  of  dam  will  last  a  loug  time. 


RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    243 

Whenever  there  is  a  small  break  in  the  dam  or  race,  cut  up  some 
willows  anil  brash,  put  them  in  the  break  along  with  some  straw 
and  dirt,  and  ram  them  down  with  clay. 

In  regard  to  the  flume,  the  greatest  care  must  be  taken  to  insure 
strength  and  durability,  combined  with  lightness.  Every  step 
takrn  in  its  constructiou  must  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to  unite  these 
qualities  in  the  highest  possible  degree,  otherwise  the  whole  is,  in  a 
manner,  labor  lost. 

To  Restore  Burnt  Steel,  and  Weld  Caat  Steel.— Borax,  48 
oz.;  sal  .mi  MM  MI ir.  10  oz. ;  prussiate  potash,  8  oz.;  rosin,  4  oz.;  alco- 
hol, ',.  gill;  soft  water,  ',,  pint.  Put  into  an  iron  pan,  and  hold 
over  a  slow  fire  till  it  comes  to  a  slow  boil,  and  until  the  liquid 
matter  evaporates,  not  letting  it  l>oil  hard,  and  being  careful  to  stir 
it  well  from  the  bottom  all  the  time. 

Steel  m;i \ 
and 
ever. 


xjel  may  be  burned  till  it  drops  apart,  and  the  particles  gathered 
welded  together  with  this  composition,  making  it  as  durable  as 


Superior  Bell  Metal.— Copper,  100  Ibs.;  tin,  23  Ibs. 

Electrum.— Copper,  8  nickel,  4  zinc,  3J4  parts.  This  compound 
is  unsurpassed  for  ease  of  workmanship  and  beauty  of  appear- 
ance. 

To  "Write  in  Silver.— Mix  1  oz.  of  the  finest  pewter  or  block  tin. 
and  2  oz.  of  quicksilver  together  till  both  become  fluid,  then  grind 
it  with  gum  water,  and  write  with  it.  The  writing  will  then  look 
as  if  done  with  silver. 

Best  Bronze  for  Brass.— Take  1  Ib.  muriatic  acid,  and  H  K>- 
white  anu-nic.  Put  them  into  an  earthen  vessel,  and  then  proceed  in 
the  usual  manner. 

Another  Bronze  for  Brass.— One  ounce  muriate  of  ammonia,  % 
oz.  alum,  \i  oz.  arsenic,  dissolved  all  together  hi  1  pint  of  strong 
vinegar. 

Zincing.— Copper  and  brass  vessels  maybe  covered  with  a  firmly 
adherent  Taver  of  pure  zinc  by  boiling  them  in  contact  with  a  solu- 
tion of  chloride  of  zinc,  pure  zinc  turnings  being  at  the  same  time 
present  in  considerable  excess. 

Dentist's  Emery  "Wheels.— Emery,  4  Ibs.;  shellac,  H  ^-J  melt 
the  shellac  over  a  slow  fireistir  in  the  emery,  and  pour  it  into  a 
mould  of  plaster  of  Paris.  When  cold  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Incrustation  of  Boilers.-QELFOSSE's  PATENT). -If  the  boiler 
be  stationary,  and  fed  with  fresh  vater,  the  amount  of  anti-petrily- 
ing  mixture  per  horse  power  for  336  hours'  consumption  may  be 


244    RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

made  by  mixing  together  12  oz.  muriate  of  soda,  2  drs.  of  dry  tan- 
nie  M  -allicacid,  '2X  oz.  of  hydrate  of  soda,  or  1  or  >,  o/..  .1  Mb- 
carbonate  of  potash.  For  locomotive  boilers  travelling  an  average 
of  140  mill's  per  day,  the  quantity  of  the  mixture  per  liorsi'  p., \\.-r 
is  increased  oue-fifth.  If  the  water  l>r  braekUh,  or  a  mixture  of 
salt  and  fresh,  the  muriate  of  soda  is  omitted,  and  in-t.  ad  of  j-j  <,/., 
are  used  for  2>£  oz.  of  hydrate  of  soda,  and  .0  di>.  in-trad  i>i  •_•  ot  tin- 
dry  tannic  or  gallic  extract.  The  mixture  is  also  prepared  in  this 
manner  when  sea  water  is  used  in  the  boiler.  The  patentee  prefers 
introducing  the  mixture  into  stationary  boilers  in  qnai  ' 
two,  three,  or  more  days,  but  locomotive  and  marine  boiler.-  ar«j  to 
be  supplied  daily  with'a  portion  of  the  mixture,  corresponding  with 
the  amount  of  duty  to  be  performed. 

To  Lessen  Friction  In  Machinery.— Grind  together  black  lead 
with  4  times  its  weight  of  lard  or  tallow.  Camphor  is  sometimes 
added  (7  Ibs,  to  the  hundred  weight. ) 

Colored  Glass.— (FraE  BLUE).— To  10  Ibs.  flint  class,  previ- 
ously melted  and  cast  into  water,  add  zaflfer,  (i  drs.,  }^  oz.  of  cal- 
cined copper,  prepared  by  putting  sheet  copper  into  a  ernciltle,  and 
exposing  it  to  the  action  of  a  fire  not  Mnmg  enough  to  melt  the 
copper,  and  you  will  have  the  copper  in  scales,  which  you  pound. 

BRIGHT  PURPLE.— Use  10  Ibs.  flint  glass  as  before;  zaffer,  5  drs.; 
precipitate  of  calcium,  1  dr. 

GOLD  YELLOW.— Twenty-eight  pounds  flint  glass,  and  a  quarter 
pound  of  the  tartar  which  is  found  in  urine,  purify  by  putting  it  in 
a  crucible  in  the  fire  till  it  smoke  no  more;  add  2  oz.  ot  nianga- 


To  Take  a  Plaster  of  Paris  Cast  from  a  Person's  Face.— The 
person  must  lie  on  his  back,  and  his  hair  lie  tied  behind,  into  each 
nostril  put  a  conical  piece  of  paper  op<;n  at  each  end  to  allow  of 
breathing.  The  face  is  to  be  lightly  oiled  over,  and  the  planter, 
being  properly  prepared,  it  is  to  lx;  poured  over  the  face,  taking 
particular  care  that  the  eyes  are  shut,  till  it  is  a  quarter  of  an  IncfS 
thick.  In  a  few  minutes  the  plaster  may  be  removed.  In  this  a 
mold  is  to  be  formed,  from  which  a  second  cast  is  to  be  taken,  that 
will  furnish  casts  exactly  like  the  original. 

To  Harden  and  Temper  Cast  Steel.— For  saws  and  springs  in 
general,  the  following  is  an  excellent  liquid:  Spermaceti  oil,  20 
gals.;  beef  suet  rendered,  20  Ibs.;  neat's-foot  oil,  1  gallon;  pitch,  1 
Ib.;  black  resin,  3  Ibs.  The  last  two  articles  must  be  previously 
melted  together,  and  then  added  to  the  other  ingredients,  when  the 
whole  must  be  heated  in  a  proper  iron  vessel,  with  a  close  oov«r 
fitted  to  it,  until  all  moisture  is  evaporated,  and  the  compoMtiuii 
will  take  fire  on  a  flaming  body  being  presented  to  its  surface. 

Furniture  Oil.— Linseed  oil,  1  gallon;  alkanet  root,  3  oz.;  rose 


RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    245 

pink,  1  oz.    Boil  them  together  ten  minutes,  and  strain  so  that  the 
oil  be  quite  clear. 

To  Cast  Figures  in  Imitation  of  Ivory.— Make  isinglass  and 
brandy  into  a  paste,  with  powdered  egg-shells  very  finely  ground. 
You  may  give  it  what  color  you  choose;  but  cast  it  warm  into  your 
mould  which  you  previously  oil  over;  leave  the  figure  in  the  mould 
till  dry.  and  you  will  find  on  taking  it  out  that  it  bears  a  very  strong 
resemblance  to  ivory. 

To  Print  a  Picture  from  the  Print  Itself.— The  page  or  picture 
is  soaked  in  a  solution,  first  of  potassa,  and  then  of  tartaric  acid. 
This  produces  a  perfect  diffusion  of  crystals  of  bitartrate  of  potassa 
through  the  texture  of  the  unprinted  part  of  the  paper.  As  this 
salt  resists  oil,  the  ink  roller  may  now  be  passed  over  the  surface, 
without  transferring  any  part  of  its  contents  except  to  the  printed 
part. 

To  Clean  Old  Oil-paintings.— Dissolve  a  small  quantity  of  salt 
in  stale  urine;  dip  a  woolen  cloth  in  the  mixture,  and  rub  the 
paintings  over  with  it  till  they  are  clean;  then  wash  them  with  a 
sponge  and  clean  water;  dry  them  gradually,  and  rub  them  over 
with  a  clean  cloth.  Should  the  dirt  r>e  not  easily  removed  by  the 
above  preparation,  add  a  small  quantity  of  soft  soap.  Be  very 
careful  not  to  rub  the  paintings  too  hard. 

To  Renew  Old  Oil-paintings.— The  blackened  lights  of  old 
pictures  may  be  instantly  restored  to  their  original  hue  by  touching 
them  with  deutoxide  of  hydrogen  diluted  with  six  or  eight  times  its 
weight  of  water.  The  part  must  be  afterwards  washed  with  a  clean 
sponge  and  water. 

To  Lengthen  Levers  of  Anchor -escapemenfWatches  with- 
out Hammering  or  Soldering. — Cut  square  across  with  a  screw- 
head  file,  a  little  back  from  the  point  above  the  fork,  and,  when  you 
have  thus  cut  into  it  to  a  sufficient  depth,  bend  forward  the  desired 
distance  the  piece  thus  partially  detached.  In  the  event  of  the  piece 
snapping  off  while  bending— which,  however,  rarely  happens— file 
down  the  point  level  with  the  fork,  and  insert  a  pin,  English  lever 
style. 

Chain  Dip  Solution,  for  Brass  Chains,  &c.— Sulphuric  acid, 
2^  oz;  nitric  acid,  2  oz.;  rain-water,  2  oz.;  saltpetre,  1  dr.;  mix  to- 
gether in  a  glass  bottle,  and  let  stand  a  few  hours.  Apply  by  dipping 
the  article  into  the  solution  quickly,  and  then  at  once  wash  off  thor- 
oughly, and  rinse  in  clean  rain-water  and  dry  in  saw-dust.  Re- 
moves instantaneously  all  stains  or  discolorations,  and  gives  to  the 
article  a  perfectly  bright  appearance. 

Pickle  for  Frosting  and  Whitening  Silver  Goods.— Sulphu- 
ric acid,  1  dr.;  water,  4  oz.;  heat  the  pickle,  and  immerse  the  silver 


246    RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

in  until  frosted  as  desired;  then  wash  off  clean,  and  dry  with  a  soft 
liiii'ii  doth,  or  in  line  clean  saw-dust.  For  whitening  only,  a  smaller 
proportion  of  ucid  uiny  be  uocd. 

Etruscan  Gold  Coloring. — Alum,  1  oz.;  fine  table-salt,  1  oz.; 
saltpetre  (powdered,)  3  OZ.;  hot  rain-water,  suflicient  to  make  tin-  -o- 
lutioii,  when  dissolved,  about  the  consistency  of  thick  air;  then  add 
.sufficient  muriatic  arid  to  produce  the  color  desired.  The  d«  give 
of  success  niu^t.  always  depend,  in  a  greater  or  le-.s  decree,  upon 
the  skill  or  judgment  of  the  operator.  Tlie  article  to  be  «.lored 
should  be  from  fourteen  to  eighteen  carats  fine,  of  purr  pi  Id  and 
copper  only,  and  be  free  from  coatings  of  tin  or  silver  solder.  The 
solution  la  Deri  used  warm,  and  when  freshly  made  the  principle  on 
which  it  acts  is  to  cat  out  the  copper  alloy  irom  the  surface  of  the 
article,  leaving  thereon  purr,  fronted  gold  only.  After  coloring, 
wash  off,  first  in  rain-water,  then  in  alcohol,  and  dry  without  rub- 
bing, in  fine,  clean  saw-dust.  Fine  Ktrusean  jewelry  that  ha>  been 
del  iced  or  tarnished  by  use  may  be  perfectly  renewed  by  the  same 
process. 

Tarnish  on  Electro-plated  Ware  may  be  removed  by  immer- 
sing the  article  from  one  to  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  or  until  the  tarnish 
has  been  removed,  but  no  longer,  in  the  following  solution:  Rain- 
water, 2  gals.;  cyanuret  pota-sa,  »$  1!>. ;  dissolve,  and  put  into  a 
stone  jug  or  jar  and  closely  cork.  After  immersion,  the  articles 
must  be  taken  out  and  thoroughly  rinsed  in  two  or  three  waters, 
then  dried  with  a  soft  linen  cloth,  or.  if  frosted  or  chased  work, 
with  fine,  clean  saw-dust.  Tarnished  jewelry  may  be  speedily 
restored  by  this  process;  but  make  sure  work  of  removing  the  alkali. 
otherwise  it  will  corrode  the  goods. 

A  Bright  Gold  Tinge  may  be  given  to  silver  hy  steeping  it  for  a 
suitable  length  of  time  in  a  weak  solution  of  sulphuric  acid  and 
water  strongly  impregnated  with  iron-rust. 

To  Make  a  Diamond  Mill.— Make  a  brass  chuck  or  wheel,  suit- 
able for  use  on  a  foot-lathe,  with  a  flat,  even  surface  or  face  of 
about  \%  or  2  inches  in  diameter;  then  place  a  number  of  the 

coarsest  pieces  of  your  diamond-dust  on  different  parts  ot  iN  face, 
and  with  a  smooth-faced  steel  hammer  drive  the  pieces  of  dust  all 
evnly  into  the  brass  to  nearly  or  quite  level  with  the  surface.  Your 
mill,  thus  prepared,  is  now  used  for  making  pallet  jewels  or  lor 
grinding  stone  and  class  of  any  kind.  For  polishing,  use  a  bone  or 
boxwood  chuck  or  wheel,  of  similar  form  to  your  mill,  and  coat  it 
lightly  with  the  finest  grade  of  your  diamond-dust  and  oil;  with  this 
a  beautiful  polish  may  be  given  to  the  hardest  stone. 

To  Temper  Case  and  other  Springs  of  "Watches.— Draw  the 

temper  from  the  spring,  and  fit  it  property  in  its  place  in  the  watch; 
then  take  it  out  and  temp  -r  itl,:»rd  in  rain-water  (thr  addition  <>f  n  "ttle 
table-salt  to  the  water  will  be  an  improvement:)  aft-r  which  place 
it  in  a  small  sheet-iron  ladle  or  cup  and  barely  cover  it  with  linseed 


RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    247 

oil;  then  hold  he  ladle  over  a  lighted  lamp  until  the  oil  ignites-  let 
it  burn  until  the  oil  is  nearly,  not  quite  all,  consumed;  then  re-cover 
with  oil  and  burn  down  as  before;  and  so  a  third  time;  at  the  end 
of  which,  plunge  it  again  into  water.  Main  and  hair  springs  may, 
in  like  manner,  be  tempered  by  the  same  process:  first  draw  the 
temper,  and  properly  coil  and  clamp  to  keep  in  position,  and  then 
proceed  the  same  as  with  case  springs. 

To  Make  Red  Watch  Hands. 1  oz.  carmine,  loz.  muriate  of 

silver,  %  oz.  tinner's  japan;  mix  together  in  an  earthen  vessel,  and 
hold  over  a  spirit-lamp  until  formed  into  a  paste.  Apply  this  to  the 
watch  hand,  and  then  lay  it  on  a  copper  plate,  face  side  up,  and 
heat  the  plate  sufficiently  to  produce  the  color  desired. 

To  Drill  into  Hard  Steel. — Make  your  drill  oval  in  form,  instead 
of  the  usual  pointed  shape,  and  tempe'r  as  hard  as  it  will  bear  with- 
out breaking;  then  roughen  the  surface  where  you  desire  to  drill 
with  a  little  diluted  muriatic  acid,  and,  instead  of  oil,  use  turpen- 
tine or  kerosene,  in  which  a  little  gum  camphor  has  been  dissolved, 
with  vour  drill.  In  operating,  keep  the  pressure  on  your  drill  firm 
and  steady ;  and  if  the  bottom  of  the  hole  should  chance  to  become 
burnished,  so  that  the  drill  will  not  act,  as  sometimes  happens, 
again  roughen  with  diluted  acid  as  before;  then  clean  out  the  hole 
carefully,  and  proceed  again. 

To  Case-harden  Iron.— If  you  desire  to  harden  to  any  consider- 
able depth,  put  the  article  into  a  crucible  with  cyanide  of  potash, 
cover  over  and  heat  altogether,  then  plunge  into  water.  This  pro- 
cess will  harden  perfectly  to  the  depth  of  two  or  three  inches. 

To  Put  Teeth  in  a  Watch  or  Clock  Wheels  without  Dove- 
tailing  or  Soldeiing. — Drill  a  hole  somewhat  wider  than  the  tooth 
square  through  the  plate,  a  little  below  the  base  of  the  tooth;  cut  from, 
the  edge  of  the  wheel  square  down  to  the  hole  already  drilled;  then 
flatten  a  piece  of  wire  so  as  to  fit  snugly  into  the  cut  of  the  saw, 
and  with  a  light  hammer  form  a  head  on  it  like  the  head  of  a  pin. 
When  thus  prepared,  press  the  wire  or  pin  into  position  in  the 
wheel,  the  head  filling  the  hole  drilled  through  the  plate,  and  the 
end  projecting  out  so  as  to  form  the  tooth;  then  with  a  sharp 
pointed  graver  cut  a  small  groove  each  side  of  the  pin  from  the 
edge  of  the  wheel  down  to  the  hole,  and  with  a  blow  of  yotfr  ham- 
mer spit-ad  the  face  of  the  pin  so  as  to  fill  the  grooves  just  cut. 
Kepeat  the  same  operation  on  the  other  side  of  the  wheel,  and 
finish  off  in  the  usual  way.  The  tooth  will  be  found  perfectly 
riveted  in  on  every  side,  and  as  strong  as  the  original  one,  while  in 
appearance  it  will  be  equal  to  the  best  dovetailing. 

To  Tighten  a  Cannon  Pinion  on  the  Centre  Arbor  when 
too  Loose.— Grasp  the  arbor  lightly  with  a  pair  of  cutting  nippers, 
ami,  by  a  single  turn  of  the  nippers  around  the  arbor,  cut  or  raise 
a  small  thread  thereon. 


248    RECEIPTS   FOR   MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

Jeweller's  Alloys.— EIGHTEEN  CARAT  GOLD  FOR  RINGS. —Gold 
coin,  V)%  grs.;  pure  copper,  3  grs.;  pure  silver,  1>$  grs. 

CHEAP  GOLD,  TWELVE  CARAT.— Gold  coin,  25  grs.;  pure  copper, 
13%  grs.;  pure  silver,  7^  grs. 

VERY  CHEAP  FOUR  CARAT  GOLD.— Copper,  18  parts;  gold,  4 
parts;  silver,  2  parts. 

IMITATIONS  OF  GOLD.— 1.  Platina,  4  dwt;  pure  copper,  2'^  <hvt.; 
slieet-/.iuc,  1  dwt.;  block-tin,  1%  dwt.;  pure  lead,  I1,  <l\\t.  If  1hi* 
should  be  found  too  hard  or  brittle  for  pnctteal  use,  re-melt  in-,'  the 
composition  with  a  little  sal-ammoniac  will  generally  render  it  malle- 
able as  desired.  L'.  1'latina,  •_'  parts;  silver,  1  part:  copper,  .'{  parts. 
These  compositions,  v\hen  properl\  prepared,  so  nearly  resemble 
pure  gold  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  diatinffutefa  them  therefrom.  A 
little  powdered  charcoal  mixed  with  metals  while  melting  will  be 
found  of  service. 

BEST  OROIDE  OF  GOLD.— Pure  copper,  4  oz.;  sheet  zinc,  \%  oz.; 
magnesia,  %  oz.;  sal-ammoniac,  }-^o/.;  quicklime,  9-32  oz. ;  cream 
tartar,  %  oz.  First  melt  the  copper  at  as  low  a  temperature  as  it 
will  melt;  then  add  the  zinc,  and  afterward*  tin-  other  articles,  in 
powder,  in  the  order  named.  Use  a  charcoal  fire  to  melt  these 
metals. 


Bushing  Alloy  for  Pivot  Holes,  &c. — Gold  coin,  3  dwt. ;  silver, 
1  dwt.,  20  grs.;  copper,  3  dwt.,  20  grs.;  palladium,  1  dwt.  The  best 
composition  known  for  the  purpose  named. 

Gold  Solder  for  Fourteen  to  Sixteen-Carat  Work.— Gold 
coin,  1  dwt.;  pure  silver,  9  grs.;  pure  copper,  6  grs.;  brass,  3  grs. 

DARKER  SOLDER.— Gold  coin,  1  dwt. ;  pure  copper,  8  grs. ;  pure  sil- 
ver, 5  grs.;  brass,  2  grs.;  melt  together  in  chareoal  fire. 

The  Northern-Light  Burning  Fluid.— COSTS  ABOTJT  EIGHT 

CENTS  PER  GALLON.— i  Jet  good  deodorized  benzine,  60  to 65 gravity, 
and  to  each  barrel  of  42  gals,  add  2  Ibs.  pulverized  alum,  3^  oz. 
gum  camphor,  and  3%  oz.  oil  of  sassafras,  or  2  oz.  oil  beruamot; 
stir  up  and  mix  thoroughly  together  and  it  will  soon  be  ready  inr 
use. 

N.  B.— As  this  fluid  creates  a  much  larger  volume  of  light  and 
flame  than  carbon  oil,  it  is  necessary  to  use  either  a  high  burner, 
such  as  the  Sun  burner,  to  elevate  the  llaine  away  from  the  lamp, 
in  order  to  keep  it  eool,  or,  instead  thereof,  to  usl-  a  burner  provi- 
ded with  a  tube  for  the  escape  of  the  gas  generated  from  the  fluid, 
such,  for  instance,  as  the  Meridian  burner. 

To  Reduce  Oxide  of  Zinc.— The  oxide  may  be  put  in  quantities 
of  SOttor  600  Ibs.  weight  into  a  large  pot  over  the  fire;  pour  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  of  muriatic  acid  over  the  top,  to  act  as  a  flux,  and 


RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL   PURPOSES.    2' 

the  action  of  the  fire  will  melt  the  dross,  when  the  pure  metal  ^ 
be  found  at  the  bottom  of  the  pot 

New  Process  to  Restore  Burnt  Steel.— When  your  steel 
burnt,  immerse  it  immediately,  for  a  very  short  time,  in  cold  wato 
then  hammer  it  on  the  anvil,  turning,  moving,  and  otherwise  manic 
lating  it  while  undergoing  this  treatment.  A  little  dexterous  pn 


tice  will  soon  enable  you  to  ivstoiv  .steel,  by  this  beautiful  and'sl 
that  would  otherwise  be  hopelessly  ruined. 


pie  process, 


To  Remove  Rust  from  Iron  or  Steel. — For  cleaning  purpos< 
&c.,  kerosene  oil  or  benzine  are  probably  the  best  tilings  know 
When  articles  have  become,  pitted  by  rust,  however,  these  can, 
course,  only  be  removed  by  mechanical  means,  such  as  scourii 
with  fine  powder,  or  flour  of  emery  and  oil,  or  with  very  fine  erne 
paper.  To  prevent  steel  from  rusting,  rub  it  with  a  mixture 
lime  and  oil,  or  with  mercurial  ointment,  either  of  which  will  1 
found  valuable. 

To  Restore  Frozen  Silver  Solution.— If  it  is  the  whitenir 
solution,  add  10  pennyweights  of  cyanide  of  potassium  to  a  pint  i 
the  solution.  For  the  first,  or  hard  coat  solution,  add  about  doub 
the  above  quantity. 

On  Watch  Cleaning. — It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  gra 
caution  must  bt»  observed  in  taking  the  watch  down — that  is,  i 
separating  its  parts.  If  you  are  new  at  the  business  think  befor 
you  act,  and  then  act  slowly.  Take  off  the  hands  carefully  so  a 
not  to  bend  the  slender  pivots  upon  which  they  work;  this  will  b 
the  first  step.  2.  Loosen  and  lift  the  movement  from  the  case.  ; 
Remove  the  dial  and  dial  wheels.  4.  Let  down  the  main-spring  b 
placing  your  bench  key  upon  the  arbor,  or  "winding  post,"  an 
turning  as  though  vou  were  going  to  wind  the  watch  until  the  clic 
rests  lightly  upon  the  ratchet;  then  with  your  screw-driver  pres 
the  point  of  the  click  away  from  the  teeth,  and  ease  down  th 
springs.  5.  Draw  the  screws  (or  pins)  and  remove  the  bridges  c 
the  train,  or  the  upper  plate,  as  the  case  may  be.  6.  Take  out  th 
balance.  Great  care  must  be  observed  in  this  or  you  will  injure  th 
hair-spring.  The  stud  or  little  square  post  into  which  the  hah 
spring  is  fastened  may  be  removed  from  the  bridge  or  plate  of  mos 
modern  watches,  without  ankering  the  spring,  by  slipping  a  thi 
instrument,  as  the  edge  of  a  knife  blade,  under  the  corner  of  it  an 
prying  upward.  This  will  save,  you  a  considerable  amount  o 
trouble,  as  you  will  not  have  the  hair-spring  to  adjust  when  yo 
reset  the  balance. 

If  the  watch  upon  which  you  propose  to  work  has  an  uppe 
plate,  as  an  American  or  an  English  lever,  for  instance,  loosen  th 
lever' before  you  have  entirely  separated  the  plates,  otherwise  i 
will  hang  and  most  likely  be  broken. 

Having  the  machine  now  down,  brush  the  dust  from  its  differen 
parts  and  subject  them  to  a  careful  examination  with  your  eye 
glass.  Assure  yourself  that  the  teeth  of  the  wheels  and  leaves  o 


250    RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL   PURPOSES. 

tho  pinions  are  all  perfect  and  smooth;  that  tin'  pivots  are  all 
straight,  round  ami  highly  polished,  that  the  holes  tbroagb  \\hich 
they  are  to  work  are  not  too  large,  an«t  have  not  become  oval  in 
shape;  that  every  jewel  is  smooth  and  perfectly  sound;  and  that 
none  of  them  an'-  IOOM'  in  their  settings.  Sri-,  ;tNo,  that  \\, 
nieiit  is  not  too  dfi-p  or  too  shallow;  that  the  lever  or  c\  Under  is 
p.-rfect;  that  all  the  wheels  have  siiflicient  play  to  avoid  friction,  but 
not  enough  to  derange  their  coming  together  jiroperly;  that  none  of 
them  work  against  tin-  pillar-plate;  that  the  balance  turns  horizon- 
tally and  does  not  rub;  that  the  hair-spring  is  not  bent  or  wrongly 
set  so  that  the  coils  rub  on  each  other,  on  the  plate,  or  on  tho 
balance;  in  short,  that  everything  about  the  whole  movement  i.s 
just  as  reason  would  teach  you  it  should  be.  It  you  find  it  other- 
wise, proceed  to  repair  iii  accordance  with  a  carefully  weighed 
judgment,  and  the  processes  given  in  the  next  chapter,  alter  which 
clean — if  not  the  watch  only  needs  to  be  cleaned,  and  therefore 
you  may  go  ahead  with  your  work  at  once. 

To  CLEAN.— Many  watchmakers  wet  tho  pillar-plates  and 
bridges  with  saliva,  and  then  dipping  the  brusli  into  pulverized 
chalk  or  Spanish  whiting,  rub  vigorously  until  they  appear  bright. 
This  is  not  a  good  plan,  as  it  rends  to  remove  the  plating  and 
roughen  the  parts,  and  the  chalk  gets  into  the  holes  and  damages 
them,  or  sticks  around  the  edm-s  of  the  wheel-beds.  The  best  pro- 
cess is  to  simply  blow  your  breath  upon  the  plate  or  bridge  to  be 
cleaned,  and  then  to  use  your  brush  with  a  little  prepared  chalk— 
(See  recipe  for  preparing  it.)  The  wheels  and  bridges  should  be 
held  between  the  thumb  and  finger  in  a  piece  ot  soil  paper  while 
undergoing  the  process;  otherwise  the  oil  from  the  skin  will  pre\ent 
their  becoming  clean.  The  pinions  mav  be  cleaned  by  sinking  them 
several  times  into  a  piece  of  pith,  and  the  holes  by  turning  a  nicely 
shaped  piece  of  pivot  wood  into  them,  tirst  dry  and  afterwards  oiled 
a  very  little  with  watch  oil.  When  the  bold  pass  through  jewels 
you  must  work  gently  to  avoid  breaking  them. 

The  oiling  above  named  is  all  the  watch  will  need.  A  great  fault 
with  many  'watchmakers  lies  in  their  use  of  too  much  oil. 

THE  CHEMICAL  PROCFSS.— Some  watchmakers  employ  what 
they  call  the  "Chemical  Process  "  to  clean  and  remove  discolora- 
tions  from  watch  movements.  It  is  as  follows: 

Remove  the  screws  and  other  steel  parts;  then  dampen  with  a 
sohition  of  oxalic  add  and  water.  Let  it  remain  a  few  moments, 
after  which  immerse  in  a  solution  made  of  one-fourth  pound 
cyanuret  potassa  to  one  gallon  rainwater.  Let  remain  about  five 
minutes,  and  then  rinse  well  with  clean  water,  after  which  you 
may  dry  in  sawdust,  or  with  a  brush  and  prepared  chalk,  as  suits 
your  convenience.  This  gives  the  work  an  excellent  appearance. 

To  Prepare  Chalk  for  Cleaning.— Pulverize  your  chalk  thor- 
oughly, and  then  mix  it  with  clear  ram  water  in  the  proportion  of 
two  pounds  to  the  gallon.  Stir  well  and  then  let  stand  about  two 
minutes.  In  this  time  the  gritty  matter  will  have,  settled  to  the  bot- 
tom. Pour  the  water  into"  another  vessel,  slowly  so  n*  not  to  .-tir 
up  the  settlings.  Let  stand  until  entirely  settled^  and  then  pour  off 


EECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    2i 

as  before.    The  settlings  in  the  second  vessel  will  be  your  pi 
pared  chalk,  ready  for  use  us  soon  as  dried. 

Spanish  whiting  treated  in  the  same  way  makes  a  very  goi 
cleaning  or  polishing  powder.  Some  operatives  add  a  lit! 
jeweler's  rouge,  and  we  think  it  an  improvement;  it  gives  the  po' 
der  a  nice  color  at  least,  and  therefore  adds  to  its  importance  in  tl 
eyes  of  the  uninitiated.  In  cases  where  a  sharper  polishing  po1 
der  is  required,  it  may  be  prepared  iu  the  same  way  from  rotti 
•tone. 


Pivot  Wood.— Watchmakers  usually  buy  this  article  of  watc 
material  dealers.  A  small  shrub  known  as  Indian  arrow-wood, 
be  met  with  in  the  Northern  and  Western  States,  makes  an  exc< 
lent  pivot  wood.  It  must  bo  cut  when  the  sap  is  down,  and  sp 
into  quarters  so  as  to  throw  the  pith  outside  of  the  rod. 


Pith  for  Cleaning.— The  stalk  of  the  common  mullcn  affor 
the  best  pith  for  cleaning  pinions.  Winter,  when  the  stalk  is  dr 
is  the  time  to  gather  it.  Some  use  cork  instead  of  pith,  but  it 
inferior. 


To  Pivot. — When  you  find  a  pivot  broken,  you  will  hardly  ] 
at  a  loss  to  understand  that  the  easiest  mode  of  repairing  tl 
damage  is  to  drill  into  the  end  of  the  pinion  or  staff,  as  the  ca 
may  be,  and  having  inserted  a  new  pivot,  turn  it  down  to  the  pr 
per  proportions.  This  is  by  no  means  a  difficult  thing  when  tl 
piece  to  be  drilled  is  not  too  hard,  or  when  the  temper  may  1 
slightly  drawn  without  injury  to  the  other  parts  of  the  article. 

To  Tell  when  the  Lever  ia  of  Proper  Length.— You  nu 
readily  learn  whether  or  not  a  lever  is  of  proper  length,  by  mea 
uring  from  the  guard  point  to  the  pallet  staff,  and  then  comparir 
with  the  roller  or  ruby-pin  table;  the  diameter  of  the  table  shou 
always  be  just  half  the  length  measured  on  the  lever.  The  ru 
will  work  both  ways,  and  may  be  useful  in  cases  when  a  new  rub 
pin  table  has  to  be  supplied. 

To  Change  Depth  of  Lever  Escapement.— If  you  are  opera 
ing  on  a  fine  watch  the  best  plan  is  to  put  a  new  staff  into  tl 
lever,  cutting  its  pivots  a  little  to  one  side— just  as  far  as  you  desi 
to  change  the  escapement.  Common  watches  will  not,  of  cours 
justify  so  much  trouble.  The  usual  process  in  their  case  is 
knock  out  the  staff,  and  with  a  small  file  cut  the  hole  oblong  in 
direction  opposite  to  that  in  which  you  desire  to  move  your  pallet 
then  replace  the  staff,  wedge  it  to  the  required  position,  and  seen 
by  soft  soldering. 

In  instances  where  the  staff  is  put  in  with  a  screw  you  will  Iw 
to  proceed  differently.  Take  out  the  staff,  pry  the  pallets  fro 
the  lever,  file  the  pin  holes  to  slant  in  the  direction  y< 
would  move  the  pallets,  without  changing  their  size  on  the  oth< 
Bide  of  the  lever.  Connect  the  pieces  as  they  were  before,  ai 


252    RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

with  the  lever  resting  on  some  solid  substance  you  may  strike 
lightly  with  your  hammer  until  the  bending  of  the  pins  will  allow 
the  pallets  to  pass  iuto  position. 

To  Tell  when  the  Lever  Pallets  are  of  Proper  Size.— The 

clear  spare  between  tin-  pallets  should  OOmMMMld  with  the  outside 
measure,  on  the  points,  of  three  teeth  of  the  scape  wheel.  The 
usual  mode  of  measuring  for  new  pallets  is  to  -et  the  wheel  as 
close  as  possible  to  free  itself  when  in  motion.  You  can  arrange  it 
in  your  depthing  tool,  after  whieh  a  measurement  between  the 
pivot  holes  of  the  two  pieces,  on  the  pillar  plate,  will  show  you  ex- 
actly what  is  required. 

To  Put  Watches  in  Beat.— If  a  cylinder  escapement,  or  a  de- 
tached lever,  put  the  balance  into  a  position,  then  turn  the  regula- 
tor so  that  it  will  point  directly  to  the  pivot-hole  of  the  pallet  >taiV, 
if  a  lever,  or  of  the  scape-wheel,  if  a  cylinder.  Then  lift  out  the 
balance  with  its  bridge  or  clock,  turn  it  over  and  >et  the  ruby-pin 
directly  in  the  line  with  the  regulator,  or  the  square  cut  of  the 
cylinder  at  right  angles  with  it.  Your  watch  will  then  be  in  per- 
fect beat. 

In  case  of  an  American  or  an  English  lever,  when  the  ' 
is  placed  upon  the  plate,  you  will  have  to  proceed  diffcrcir 
the  balance  into  its  place,"  cut  off  the  connection  of  the  train,  if  the 
mainspring  is  not  entirely  down,  by  slipping  a  fine  broach  into  one 
of  the  wheels,  look  between  the  p'.at'-s  and  ascertain  how  the  lever 
stands.     If  the  end  furthest   from  the  balance   is  eqtii-distant   be- 
tween the  two  brass  pins   it  U  ail   right— if  not,  change  the  hair- 
spring till  it  becoiii 

If  dealing  with  a  duplex  watch,  you  must  see  that  the  roller 
notch,  when  the  balance  is  at  iv-t  is'exa-'tly  between  the  locking 
tooth  and  the  line  of  centre— that  is,  a  line  drawn  from  the  centre 
of  the  roller  to  the  centre  of  the  seape-wheel.  The  balance  must 
start  from  its  rest  and  move  through  an  arc  of  about  ten  de-r.  cs 
before  bringing  the  locking  tooth  into  action. 


To  Prevent  a  Chain  Running  off  the  Fusee. — In  the  first 
place  you  must  look  after  and  ascertain  the  cau-.e  of  the  difliculty. 
If  it  results  from  the  chain's  being  too  large,  the  only  difficulty  "is 
a  new  chain.  If  it  is  not  too  large,  and  yet  runs  ,.ff'  without  any 
apparent  cause,  change  it  end  for  end— that  will  generally  make  ft 
BO  all  right.  In  cases  where  the  channel  in  the  fiiM  e 'has  been 
damaged  and  is  rough,  you  will  be  under  the  nee es>ity  of 
it  over  with  a  file  the  proper  si/.e  and  shape.  Sometimes  you  find 
the  chain  naturally  inclined  to  work  away  from  the  body  of  the 
Hi--  be>t  way  to  remedy  a  difficulty  of  this  kind  is  to  file  off 
a  very  little  from  the  outer  Tower  edge  "of  the  chain  the  entire 
length— tliis,  as  you  can  see.  will  incline  it  to  work  on  instead  of 
off.  Some  workmen,  when  they  have  a  bad  ea-e,  and  a  common 
watch,  change  the  standing  of  the  fu>e.-  >(>  as  t.-  eaiise  the  winding 
end  of  its  arbor  to  incline  a  little  from  the  barrel.  This,  of  course, 
cannot  do  otherwise  than  make  the  chain  run  tu  its  place. 


BECEIPT8  FOB  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    253 

To  Weaken  the  Hair-Spring.— This  is  often  effected  by  grind- 
ing the  spring  down.  You  remove  the  spring  from  the  collet,  and 
place  it  upon  a  piece  of  pivot  wood  cut  to  fit  the  centre  coil.  A 
piece  of  soft  steel  wire,  flattened  so  as  to  pass  freely  between  the 
coils,  and  armed  with  a  little  pulverized  oil  stone  and  oil,  will 
eerve  as  your  grinder,  and  with  it  you  may  soon  reduce  the 
Mivn-th  of  the  spring.  Your  operations  will,  of  course,  be  con- 
fined to  the  centre  coil,  for  no  other  part  of  the  spring  will  rest 
Millii-iently  against  the  wood  to  enable  you  to  grind  it,  but  this  will 
generally  suffice.  The  effect  will  be  more  rapid  than  one  would 
suppose,  therefore  it  will  stand  you  in  hand  to  be  careful  or  you 
may  get  the  spring  too  weak  before  you  suspect  it 

To  Tighten  a  Ruby  Pin.— Set  the  ruby  pin  in  asphaltum  var- 
nish. It  will  become  hard  in  a  few  minutes,  and  be  much  firmer 
and  better  than  gum  shellac,  as  generally  used. 

To  Temper  Brass  or  to  Draw  its  Temper.— Brass  is  ren- 
dered hard  by  hammering  or  rolling,  therefore  when  you  make  a 
thing  of  brass,  necessary  to  be  in  temper,  you  must  prepare  the 
material  before  shaping  the  article.  Temper  may  be  drawn  from 
brass  by  heating  it  to  a  cherry  red,  and  then  simply  plunging  it 
into  water  the  same  as  though  you  were  going  to  temper  steel. 

To  Temper  Drills.-pSelect  none  but  the  finest  and  best  steel 
for  your  drills.  In  making  them  never  heat  higher  than  a  cherry 
red,  and  always  hammer  till  nearly  cold.  Do  all  your  hammering 
in  one  way,  for  if,  after  you  have  flattened  your  piece  out,  you  at- 
tempt to  hammer  it  back  to  a  square  or  a  round  you  spoil  it. 
When  your  drill  is  in  proper  shape  heat  it  to  a  cherry  red,  and 
thrust  it  into  a  piece  of  resin,  or  into  quicksilver. 

Some  use  a  solution  of  cyanuret  potassa  and  rain  water  for  tem- 
pering their  drills,  but  for  my  part  I  have  always  found  the  resin 
or  quicksilver  to  work  best. 

To  Temper  Gravers.-^-Gravers  and  other  instruments  larger  than 
drills,  may  be  tempered  in  quicksilver  as  above;  or  you  may  use 
lead  instead  of  quicksilver.  Cut  down  into  the  lead,  say  half  an 
inch;  then,  having  heated  your  instrument  to  a  light  cherry  red, 
press  it  firmly  into  the  cut.  The  lead  will  melt  around  it,  and  an 
excellent  temper  will  be  imparted. 

Other  Methods  to  Temper  Case  Springs.— Having  fitted  the 
spring  into  the  case  according  to  your  liking,  temper  it  hard  by 
heating  and  plunging  into  water.  Next  polish  the  small  end  so 
that  you  may  be  able  to  see  when  the  color  changes;  lay  it  on  a 
piece"  of  copper  or  brass  plate,  and  hold  the  plate  over  your  lamp, 
with  the  blaze  directly  under  the  largest  part  of  the  spring.  Watch 
the  polished  part  of  the  steel  closely,  and  when  you  see  it  turn  blue 
remove  the  plate  from  the  lamp,  letting  all  cool  gradually  together. 
When  cool  enough  to  handle  polish  the  end  of  the  spring  again, 


254    RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

place  it  on  the  plate  an  1  hoi  1  it  ever  tin-  lamp  as  bef,,re.  The  third 
Blueing  Of  the  polished  end  will  leave  the  spring  in  proper  temper. 
Any  steel  article  to  which  you  desire  to  give  a  spring  temper  may 
be  treated  in  the  same  way. 

Another  process  said  to  bo  pood,  is  to  temper  the  spring  as  in  the 
fir>t  instance;  th'-n  put  it  in  a  >mall  iron  ladl--.  cover  it  \\ith  lin-  <  d 
oil  and  hold  over  a  lamp  till  the  oil  take-,  lire.  Keinove  the  ladle, 
but  let  the  oil  continue  to  burn  until  nearly  all  consumed,  when 
blow  out,  re-cover  with  oil  and  hold  over  the  lamp  a- 
The  third  burning  out  of  the  oil  will  leave  the  spring  in  the  right 
temper. 

To  Temper  Clicks,  Ratchets,  Ac.— Hicks  TJntch«-K  or  other 
steel  articles  requiring  a  similar  decree  of  hardness  should  be  tem- 
pered in  mercurial  ointment.  The  \>r«  £89  cmi-iM^  in  Minply  heating 
to  a  cherry  n-d  ami  plunging  into  the  ointment.  No  other  mode  \\ili 
couibiue  toughness  and  hardness  to  such  an  extent. 

To  Draw  the  Temper  from  Delicate  Steel  Pieces  without 
Springing  them. — I'lac.-  the  article  irom  which  you  desire  to  draw 
the  temper  into  a  common  iron  clock  key.  Fill  around  it  with  brass 
or  iron  tilings, and  then  plug  up  the  open  end  with  a  sterl.  iron  or 
brass  plug,  'made  to  tit  closely.  Take  the  handle  of  the  key  with 
your  plyers  and  hold  its  pipe  into  the  bla/e  of  a  lamp  till  near  hot, 
then  It  it  cool  gradually.  When  sufficiently  cold  to  handle,  re- 
move the  plug,  and  you  will  find  the  article  with  its  temper  fully 
drawn,  but  in  all  other  respects  ju-t  as  it  \va-  : 

You  will  iMiderstaiid  the  reason  for  having  the  article  thus 
plugged  up  while  passing  it  through  the  heating  and  cooling  pro- 
cess,  when  we  t  •!!  you  that  spring nt;  a!  ;  Mim  the  action 

of  changeable  currents  of  atmosphere.  Tlie  temper  may  be  drawn 
from  cylinders,  staffs,  pinions,  or  any  other  delicate  pieces  by  this 
mode  with  perfect  safety. 

To  Temper  Staffs,  Cylinders  or  Pinions,  without  Spring- 
ing them. — Prepare  the  articles  as  in  the  preceding  proee**,  lining 
a  steel  plug.  Having  heated  the  key-pipe  to  a  cherry  red,  plunge  it 
into  water;  then  ]*>lish  the  end  of 'your  sterl  plug."  place  the  kev 
upon  a  plate  of  brass  or  copper,  and  hold  it  over  your  lamp  with 
tlv  bla/e  immediately  und  T  the  pipe  till  \\\->  polished  part  Iwcomes 
blue.  Let  cool  gradually,  th-n  polish  ag^m-  Blue  and  cool  a  sec- 
ond time,  and  the  work  will  be  done. 

To  Draw  the  Temper  from  Part  of  a  Small  Steel  Article. 
— Hold  the  part  from  which  you  wish  to  draw  the  temper,  with  a 
pair  of  tweezers,  and  with  your  blow-pipe  direct  the  tlame  upon 
th»m— not  the  article— till  sufficient  heat  is  communicated  to  the 
article  to  produce  the  d  -sired  effect. 

To  Bine  Screws  Evenly.— Take  an  old  watch  barrel  and  drill 
as  many  holes  into  the  head  of  jt  as  ymi  desire  to  blue  screws  at  a 
time.  Fill  it  about  one-fourth  full  of  "brass  or  iron  tilings,  put  in  the 


RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    25* 

head,  and  then  fit  a  wire,  long  enough  to  bend  over  for  a  handle 
into  the  arbor  holes— head  of  the  barrel  upwards.  Brighten  th< 
heads  of  your  screws,  set  them,  point  downwards,  into  the  holes 
already  drilled,  and  expose  the  bottom  of  the  barrel  to  your  lami 
till  the  screws  assume  the  color  you  wish. 

To  Remove  Blueing  from  Steel.— Immerse  in  a  pickle  com 
pos(«d  of  equal  parts  muriatic  acid  and  elixir  vitriol,  liiuse  in  pun 
water  and  dry  in  tissue  paper. 

To  Make  Diamond  Broaches. — Make  your  broaches  of  brass 
the  size  and  shape  you  desire:  then,  having  oiled  them  slightly,  roll 
their  points  into  fine  diamond  dust  till  entirely  covered.  Hold  them 
then  on  the  face  of  your  anvil  and  tap  with  a  light  hammer  till  the 
grains  disappear  in  the  brass.  Great  caution  will  be  necessary  in 
this  operation.  Do  not  tap  heavy  enough  to  flatten  the  broach. 
Very  light  blows  are  all  that  will  be  required;  the  grains  will  be 
driven  in  much  sooner  than  one  would  imagine. 

Some  roll  the  broach  between  two  smooth  pieces  of  steel  to  imbed 
the  diamond  dust.  It  is  a  very  good  way,  but  somewhat  more 
wasteful  of  the  dust. 

Broaches  made  on  this  plan  are  used  for  dressing  out  jewels. 

To  Make  Polishing  Broaches. — These  are  usually  made  of  ivory, 
and  used  with  diamond  dust,  loose,  instead  of  having  been  driven 
in.  You  oil  the  broach  lightly,  dip  it  into  the  finest  diamond  dust 
and  proceed  to  work  into  the  jewel  the  same  as  you  do  the  brass 
broach.  Unfortunately,  too  many  watchmakers  fail  to  attach  sum- 
cient  importance  to  the  polishing  broach.  The  sluggish  motion  of 
watches  now-a-days,  is  more  often  attributable  to  rough  jewels 
than  to  any  other  cause. 

To  Make  Diamond  Files.— Shape^your  file  of  brass,  and  charge 
with  diamond  dust,  as  in  the  case  of  the  mill.  Grade  the  dust  In 
accordance  with  the  coarse  or  fine  character  of  the  file  desired. 

To  Make  Pivot  Piles.— Dress  up  a  piece  of  wood  file-fashion, 
about  an  inch  brood,  and  glue  a  piece  of  fine  emery  paper  upon  it. 
Shape  your  file  then,  os  you  wish  it,  of  the  best  cast  steel,  and  be- 
fore tempering  pass  your  emery  paper  heavily  across  it  several 
times,  diagonally.  Temper  by  heating  to  a  cherry  red,  and,  plung- 
ing into  linseed  oil.  Old  worn  pivot  files  may  be  made  over  and 
made  new  by  this  process.  At  first  thought  one  would  be  led  to 
regard  them  too  slightly  cut  to  work  well,  but  not  so.  They  dress 
a  pivot  more  rapidly  than  any  other  file. 

To  Make  Burnishers.— Proceed  the  same  as  in  making  pivot 
files  with  the  exception  that  you  are  to  use  fine  flour  of  emery  on 
a  slip  of  oiled  brass  or  copper,  instead  of  the  emery  paper.  Bur- 
nishers which  have  become  too  smooth  may  be  improved  vastly 
with  the  flour  of  emery  as  above  without  drawing  the  temper. 
17 


256    RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

To  Prepare  a  Burnisher  for  Polishing.— Melt  a  little  bees- 
wax on  the  face  of  your  burnisher.  Its  eilect  then,  on  lua^  or 
other  finer  metals  will  be  equal  to  the  best  buff.  A  small  bur- 
nisher prepared  in  this  way  is  the  very  tiling  with  which  to  polish 
up  watch  wheels.  Rest  them  on  a  piece  of  pith  while  polishing. 

To  Clean  a  Clock. —  Take  the  movement  of  the  clock  "to- 
pleces."  Brush  the  wheels  and  pinions  thoroughly  with  a  stiff, 
coarse  brush;  also  the  plates  into  which  the  trams'work.  Clean 
the  pivots  well  by  turning  in  a  piece  of  cotton  doth  held  tightly 
between  your  thumb  and  finger,  The  pivot  holes  in  the  plates  are 
generally  cleansed  by  turning  a  piece  of  wood  in  them,  but  I  have 
always  found  a  strip  of  cloth  or  a  soft  cord  drawn  lightly  through 
them  to  act  the  best.  If  you  use  two  cords,  the  first  one  slightly 
oiled,  and  the  next  dry  to  ciean  the  oil  out,  all  the  better.  Do  not 
use  salt  or  acid  to  clean  your  clock — it  can  do  no  good,  but  may  do 
a  great  deal  of  harm.  Boiling  the  movement  in  water,  as  some 
practice,  is  also  foolishness. 

To  Bush. — The  hole  through  which  the  great  arbors  or  wind- 
tag  axles  work,  are  the  only  ones  that  usually  require  bushing. 
When  they  have  become  too  much  worn  the  great  wheel  on  the 
axle  before-named  strikes  too  deeply  into  the  pinions  above  it,  and 
stop  the  clock.  To  remedy  this  bushing  K  neces>ary,  of  course. 
The  most  common  way  of  aotof  it  is  to  drive  a  steel  pant  or  punch 
into  the  plate  just  abo've  the  axle  hole,  thus  forcing  the  bm 
ward  until  the  hole  is  reduced  to  its  original  size.  Another  mode 
is  to  solder  a  piece  of  bra>s  upon  the  plate  in  such  a  position  as  to 
hold  the  axle  down  to  its  proper  place.  If  you  simply  wMi  your 
clock  to  run,  and  have  no  ambition  to  produce  a  bush  that  will  look 
workmanlike,  about  as  good  a  way  as  any  is  to  fit  a  piece  of  hard 
wood  beetween  the  post  which  comes  through  the  top  oi  the  plate  and 
the  axle.  Make  it  long  enough  to  hold  the  axle-  to  its  proper  place, 
and  so  that  the  axle  will  run  on  the  end  of  the  grain.  Cut  notches 
where  the  pivots  come  through,  and  secure  by  wrapping  around  it 
and  the  plate  a  piece  of  small  wire,  or  a  thread.  There  is  no  post 
coming  through  above  the  axle  on  the  striking  Bide,  but  this  will 
rarely  require  bushing.  I  have  known  clocks  to  run  well  on  this 
kind  of  bushing,  botchified  as  it  may  appear,  for  ten  years. 

To  Remedy  Worn  Pinions.— Turn  the  leaves  or  rollers  so  the 
worn  places  upon  them  will  be  towards  the  arbor  or  shaft,  and 
fasten  them  in  that  position.  If  they  are  "rolling  pinions,"  and 
you  cannot  secure  them  otherwise,  you  had  better  do  it  with  a  little 
soft  solder. 

To  Oil  Properly.— Oil  only,  and  very  lightly,  the  pallets  of  the 
verge,  the  steel  pin  upon  which  the  verge  works,  and  the  point 
where  the  loop  of  the  verge  wire  works  over  the  pendulum  wire. 
Use  none  but  the  best  watch  oil.  Though  you  might  be  working 
constantly  at  the  clock  repairing  busine.-s,  -A  'bottle  costing  you  but 
25  cents,  would  last  you  two  years  at  least.  You  can  buy  it  at  any 
watch-furnishing  establishment. 


RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    257 

To  Make  the  Clock  Strike  Correctly.— If  not  very  cautious 
ID  putting  up  your  clock  you  will  get  some  of  the  striking-train 
wheels  in  wrong,  and  thus  produce,  :i  derangement  in  the  striking. 
If  this  should  happen,  pry  the  plates  apart  on  the  striking  side, 
slip  the  pivots  of  the  upper  wheels  out,  and  having  disconnected 
them  from  the  train,  turn  them  part  around  and  put  them  back.  If 
still  not  right,  repeat  the  experiment.  A  few  efforts  at  most  will 
get  them  to  working  properly. 


A  Defect  to  Look  After.— Always  examine  the  pendulum-wire 
at  the  point  where  the  loop  of  the  verge  wire  works  over  it.  You 
will  generally  find  a  small  notch,  or  at  least  a  rough  place  worn 
there.  Dress  it  out  perfectly  smooth,  or  your  clock  will  not  be 
likely  to  work  well.  Small  as  this  defect  may  seem,  it  stops  a  large 
number  of  clocks. 


To  Refine  Gold. — If  you  desire  to  refine  your  gold  from  the 
baser  metals,  swedge  or  roll  it  out  very  thin,  then  cut  into  narrow 
strips  and  curl  up  so  as  to  prevent  its  lying  flatly.  Drop  the  pieces 
thus  prepared  into  a  vessel  containing  good  nitric  acid,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  acid  2  oz.,  and  pure  rain  water  >£  oz.  Suffer  to  remain 
until  thoroughly  dissolved,  which  will  be  the  case  in  ^  hour  to  1 
hour.  Then  pour  off  the  liquid  carefully  and  you  will  find  the 
gold  in  the  form  of  a  yellow  powder  lying  at  the  bottom  of  the 
vessel.  Wash  this  with  pure  water  till  it  ceases  to  have  an  acid 
taste,  after  which  you  may  melt  and  cast  into  any  form  you  choose. 
Gold  treated  in  this  way  may  be  relied  on  as  perfectly  pure. 

In  melting  gold  use  none  other  than  a  charcoal  fire,  and  during 
the  process  sprinkle  saltpetre  and  potash  into  the  crucible  occa- 
sionally. Do  not  attempt  to  melt  with  stone  coal,  as  it  renders  the 
metal  brittle  and  otherwise  imperfect. 

To  Refine  Silver.— Dissolve  in  nitric  acid  as  in  the  case  of  the 
cold.  When  the  silver  has  entirely  disappeared,  add  to  the  water. 
Sink,  then,  a  sheet  of  clean  copper  into  it— the  silver  will  collect 
rapidly  upon  the  copper,  and  you  can  scrape  it  off  and  melt  into 
bulk  at  pleasure. 

In  the  event  you  were  refining  gold  in  accordance  with  the  fore- 
going formula,  and  the  impurity  was  silver,  the  only  steps  neces- 
sary to  save  the  latter  would  be  to  add  the  above-named  proportion 
of  water  to  the  solution  poured  from  the  gold,  and  then  to  proceed 
with  your  copper  plate  as  just  directed. 

To  Refine  Copper. — This  process  differs  from  the  one  em- 
ployed to  refine  silver  in  no  respects  save  the  place  to  be  immersed; 
you  use  an  iron  instead  of  a  copper  plate  to  collect  Hw  metal. 

If  the  impurities  of  gold  refined  were  both  silver  and  copper,  you 
micht  after  saving  the  silver  as  above  directed,  sink  your  iron  plate 
into  the  solution  yet  remaining,  and  take  out  the  copper.  The  parte 
of  alloyed  gold  may  be  separated  by  these  processes,  and  leave  each 
In  a  perfectly  pure  state. 


258    RECEIPTS   FOB  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

To  Hard  Solder  Gold,  Silver,  Copper,  Brass,  Iron,  Steel, 
or  Platina. — The  solders  to  b  •  u-"d  !<>r  gold,  silver,  copper  ana 
hra-s  are  given  in  the  preceding  part.  You  commence  operations 
by  reducing  your  solder  to  small  particles  and  mixing  it  with 
pOWdend  ni-ammaniM  and  powdered  borax  in  e<[ual  i 
ened  to  make  il  hold  t»u<'!!i<-r.  Having  fitti-d  up  the  joint  to  be 
soldered,  you  secure  th--  article  up-.m  a  pi  !.  lay 

your  soldering  mixture  innne<liately  over  the  joint,  and  then  \sith 
your  blow  pipe  turn  the  flames  of  your  lamp  upon  it  until  fusion 
takes  place.  The  job  is  then  done  and  ready  to  be  cooled  and 
dressea  up. 

Iron  is  usually  soldered  with  copper  or  brass,  in  accordance  with 
the  above  process.  The  In-st  solder  for  ste«'l  is  pure  gold  or  pure 
silver,  though  gold  or  silvr  sold.-rs  are  often  used  successfully. 

Platina  can  only  be  soldered  well  with  gold;  and  the  entente «l 
it,  therefore,  contributes  to  the  hindrance  of  a  general  u^..  (.i  platina 
vessels,  even  for  chemical  purposes,  where  they  are  of  so  much  im- 
portance. 

To  Soft  Solder  Articles.— Moisten  the  parts  to  be  united  with 
soldering  fluid;  then,  having  joined  them  together,  lava  small  piece 
of  solder  upon  the  joint  and  hold  over  your  lamp,  or  direct  the  blaze 
upon  it  with  your  blow  pipe  until  fusion  is  apparent.  Withdraw 
them  from  the  blaze  immediately,  as  too  much  heat  will  render  the 
solder  brittle  and  unsatisfactory.  When  the  parts  to  be  joined  can 
be  made  to  spring  or  press  against  each  other.it  is  best  to  plan- a 
thin  piece  of  solder  between  them  before  exposing  to  the  lamp. 

Where  two  smooth  surfaces  are  to  In-  soldered  one  upon  the  other, 
you  may  make  an  excellent  v>b  by  moistenini:  them  with  the  fluid, 
and  then,  having  placed  a  sneet  of  tin  foil  between  them,  holding 
them  pressed  firmly  together  over  your  lamp  till  the  foil  melts.  If 
the  surfaces  fit  nicely  a  joint  may  b"  made  in  this  way  so  <-l«»e  as  to 
be  almost  Imperceptible.  The  brightest  looking  lead"  which  comes 
as  a  lining  to  tin  boxes  works  better  in  the  same  way  than  tin  foil. 

To  Cleanse  Gold  Tarnished  in  Soldering.— The  old  English 
mode  was  to  expose  all  parts  of  the  article  to  a  uniform  heat,  allow 
it  to  cool  and  then  boil  until  bright  in  urine  and  sr.l-ammoniac.  It 
is  now  usually  cleansed  with  diluted  sulphuric  acid.  The  pickle  is 
made  in  about  the  proportion  of  one-eighth  of  an  oz.  acid  to  1  oz. 
rain  water. 

To  Cleanse  Silver  Tarnished  in  Soldering. — Some  expose  to 
a  uniform  heat,  as  in  the  case  of  gold,  ami  then  boil  in  strong  alum 
water.  Others  immcrs"  for  a  considerable  length  of  time  in  a  liquid 
made  of  %  anoz.  of  cyanuret  potassa  to  1  pt.  rain  water,  and  then 
brush  off  with  prepared  chalk. 

To  Maks  Gold  Solution  for  Electro-Plating.— Dissolve  five 
pennyweights  gold  coin,  five  grains  pure  copper  and  4  grains  pure 
silver  in  3  oz.  nitro  muriatic  acid;  which  is  simply  two  parti  muria- 


RECEIPTS  FOB  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    259 

tic  acid  and  one  part  nitric  acid.  The  silver  will  not  be  taken  into 
solution  as  are  the  other  two  metals,  but  will  gather  at  the  bottom 
of  the  vessel.  Add  1  oz.  pulverized  sulphate  of  iron,  >£  oz.  pul- 
verized borax,  25  grs.  pure  table  salt,  and  1  qt.  hot  rain  water. 
Upon  this  the  gold  and  copper  will  be  thrown  to  the  bottom  of  the 
ve&HJl  with  the  silver.  Let  stand  till  fully  settled,  then  pour  oif  the 
liquid  carefully,  and  refill  with  boiling  rain  water  as  before  Con- 
tinue to  repeat  this  operation  until  the  precipitate  is  thoroughly 
washed;  or,  in  other  words,  fill  up,  let  settle,  and  pour  off  so  long 
as  the  accumulation  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  is  acid  to  the  taste. 

You  now  have  about  an  eighteen  carat  cliloride  of  gold.  Add 
to  it  an  oz.  and  an  eighth  cyanuret  potassa,  and  1  qt.  rain  water— 
the  latter  heated  to  the  boiling  point.  Shake  up  well,  then  let  stand 
about  twenty-four  hours  and  it  will  be  ready  for  use. 

Some  use  phitina  as  an  alloy  instead  of  silver,  under  the  impres- 
sion that  plating  done  with  it  is  harder.  I  have  used  both,  but  never 
could  see  much  difference. 

Solution  for  a  darker  colored  plate  to  imitate  Guinea  gold  may 
be  made  by  adding  to  the  above  1  oz.  of  dragon's  blood  and  five 
grains  of  iodide  of  iron. 

If  you  desire  an  alloyed  plate,  proceed  as  first  directed,  without 
the  stiver  or  copper,  and  with  an  oz.  and  a  half  of  sulphuret potassa 
in  place  of  the  iron,  borax  and  salt. 

To  Make  Silver  Solution  for  Electro-Plating.— Put  together 
into  a  glass  vessel,  one  oz.  good  silver,  made  thin  and  cut  into 
strips;  two  oz.  best  nitric  acid  and  %  an  oz.  pure  rain  water.  If 
solution  does  not  begin  at  once,  add  a  little  more  water— continue 
to  add  a  very  little  at  a  time  till  it  does.  In  the  event  it  starts  off 
well,  but  stops  before  the  silver  is  fully  dissolved,  you  may  generally 
start  it  up  again  all  right  by  adding  a  little  more  water. 

When  solution  is  entirely  effected,  add  1  qt.  warm  rain  water  and 
a  large  tablespoonful  of  table  salt.  Shake  well  and  let  settle,  then 
proceed  to  pour  off  and  wash  through  other  waters  as  in  the  case  of 
the  gold  preparation.  When  no  longer  acid  to  the  taste,  put  in  an. 
oz.  and  an  eighth  cyanuret  potassa  and  a  qt.  pure  rain  water;  after 
standing  about  twenty-four  hours  it  will  be  ready  for  use. 

To  Plate  with  a  Battery.— If  the  plate  is  to  be  gold,  use  the 
gold  solution  for  electroplating;  if  silver  use  the  silver  solution. 
Prepare  the  article  to  be  plated  bv  immersing  it  for  several  minutes 
in  a  strong  Ive  made  of  potash  and  rain  water,  polishing  off 
thoroughly  at  the  end  of  the  time  with  a  soft  brush  and  prepared 
chalk.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  let  the  fingers  come  in  contact 
with  the  article  while  polishing,  as  that  has  a  tendency  to  prevent 
the  plate  from  adhering— it  should  be  held  in  two  or  three  thick- 
nesses of  tissue  paper. 

Attach  the  article,  when  thoroughly  cleansed,  to  the  positive  pole 
of  your  battery,  then  affix  a  piece  of  gold  or  silver,  as  the  case  may 
be,  to  the  negative  pole,  and  immerse  both  into  the  solution  in  such 
a  way  as  not  to  hang  in  contact  with  each  other. 

After  the  article  has  been  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  battery 
about  ten  minutes,  take  it  out  and  wash  or  polish  over  with  a  thick 


260    RECEIPTS   FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

mixture  of  water  and  prepared  chalk  or  jeweller's  rouge.     If,  in 

the  (iji.Tat.ioii,  you  find  places  win-re  tin-  plating  >eems  inclined  to 
peel  off,  or  when  it  lias  not  taken  well,  mix  a  little  of  tin-  plating 
solution  witli  prepared  chalk  or  rouge,  ami  rub  the 
thoroughly  with  it.     This  will  be  likely  to  set  all  right. 

Ghovern  your  time  of  exposing  the  article  to  the   battery  by  the 
desired  thickness  of  the  plate.     During  the  time  it   should  be  taken 
out  and  polished  up  as  just  directed  about  every  ten  mini! 
often  at  least  as  then:   is  an  indication  of  a   growing  dai! 
any  part  of  its  surface.     When  done,  finish  with  the  burnisher  on 
prepared  chalk  and  chamois  skin,  as  best  suits  your  taste  and  con- 
venience. 

In  case  the  article  to  be  plated  is  iron,  steel.  It  ad,  pewter,  or 
block  tin,  you  must,  after  first  cleansing  with  the  lye  and  chalk, 
prepare  it  by  applying  with  a  soft  brush— a  camel's  hair  pencil  is 
best  suited — a  solution  made  of  the  following  article^  in  the  pro- 
portion named:  Nitric  acid,  half  an  ounce;  muriatic  acid,  one- 
third  of  an  ounce;  sulphuric  acid,  one-ninth  of  an  ounce;  muri- 
ate of  potash,  one-seventh  of  an  ounce;  sulphate  of  iron,  one- 
fourth  of  an  ounce;  sulphuric  ether,  one-fifth  of  an  ounce,  and  as 
much  sheet  zinc  as  it  will  dissolve.  This  prepares  a  foundation, 
without  which  the  plate  would  fail  to  take  well,  if  at  all. 


To  Make  Gold  Amalgam.— Eight  parts  of  gold  and  one  of  mer- 
cury are  formed  into  an  amalgam  for  plating,  by  rendering  the 
gold  into  thin  plates,  making  it  red  hot  and  then  potting  it  into  the 
mercury  while  the  latter  is  also  heated  to  ebullition.  The  gold  im- 
mediately disappears  in  combination  with  the  mercury,  after  which 
the  mixture  may  be  turned  into  water  to  cool.  It  is  then  ready  for 


To  Plate  With  Gold  Amalgam.— Gold  amalgam  is  chiefly  used 

as  a  plating  for  silver,  copper,  or  brass.  The  article  to  be  plated  is 
washed  over  with  diluted  nitric  acid  or  potash  lye  and  prepared 
chalk,  to  remove  any  tarnish  or  rust  that  niiirht  prevent  the  amal- 
gam from  adhering.  After  having  been  polished  perfectly  bright, 
the  amalgam  is  applied  as  evenly  as  possible,  usually  with  a  fine 
scratch  brush.  It  is  then  set  upon  a  grate  over  a  charcoal  fire,  or 
placed  into  an  oven  and  heated  to  that  decree  at  which  mercury 
exhales.  The  gold,  when  the  mercury  has  evaporated,  presents  a 
dull  yellow  color.  Cover  it  with  a  coating  of  pulverized  nitre  and 
alum  in  equal  parts,  mixed  t.>a  paste  with  water,  and  beat  again 
till  il  is  thoroughly  melted,  then  plunge  into  water.  Burnish  up 
with  a  steel  or  blooustone  burnisher. 


To  Make  and  Apply  Gold  Plating  Solution.— Dissolve  half 
an  ounce  of  gold  amalgam  in  one  ounce  of  nitro-muriatic  acid. 
Add  two  ounces  of  alcohol,  and  then,  having  brightened  the  article 
in  the  usual  way,  apply  the  solution  with  a  soft  brush.  I  Muse  and 
dry  in  saw-dust,  or  with  tissue  paper,  and  polish  up  with  chamois 
8km. 


RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    26] 

To  Make  and  Apply  Gold  Plating  Powders.  — Prepare  t 
chloride  ot  gold  the  same  as  for  plating  with  a  battery.  Add  to  it 
When  thoroughly  washed  out,  cyanuret  potassa  in  the  proportion  oi 
two  ounces  to  five  pennyweights  of  gold.  Pour  in  a  pint  of  clean  rair 
water,  shake  up  well  and  then  let  stand  till  the  chloride  is  dissolved 
Add  then  one  pound  of  prepared  Spanish  whiting  and  let  evapo 
rate  in  the  open  air  till  dry,  after  which  put  away  in  a  tight  vesse 
for  use.  To  apply  it  you  prepare  the  article  in  the  usual  way,  anc 
having  made  the  powder  into  a  paste  with  water,  rub  it  upon  th< 
surface  with  a  piece  of  chamois  skin  or  cotton  flannel. 

An  old  mode  of  making  a  gold  plating  powder  was  to  dip  clear 
linen  rags  into  solution  prepared  as  in  the  second  article  preced 
ing  this,  and  having  dried,  to  fire  and  burn  them  into  ashes.  Th< 
aslies  formed  the  powder,  and  were  to  be  applied  as  above. 


To  Make  and  Apply  Silver  Plating  Solution.  —  Put  tc 
gether  in  a  glass  vessel  one  ounce  nitrate  of  silver,  two  ounces  cya- 
nuret potassa,  four  ounces  prepared  Spanish  whiting,  and  ten 
ounce*  pure  rain  water.  Cleanse  the  article  to  be  plated  as  pel 
preceding  directions,  and  apply  with  a  soft  brush.  Finish  with  the 
chamois  skin  or  burnisher. 


To  Make  and  Apply  Silver  Plating  Powder.— Dissolve  silvei 
in  nitric  acid  by  the  aid  of  heat;  put  some  pieces  of  copper  intc 
the  solution  to  precipitate  the  silver;  wash  the  acid  out  in  the  usual 
way;  then  with  fifteen  grains  of  it  mix  two  drachms  of  tartar,  twc 
drachms  of  table  salt,  and  half  a  drachm  of  pulverized  alum, 
Brighten  the  article  to  be  plated  with  Jye  and  prepared  chalk,  and 
rub  on  the  mixture.  When  it  has  assumed  a  white  appearance, 
expose  to  heat  as  in  the  case  of  plating  with  gold  amalgam,  then 
polish  up  with  the  burnisher  or  soft  leather. 


To  Frost  Watch  Movments. — Sink  that  part  of  the  article  tc 
be  frosted  for  a  short  time  in  a  compound  of  nitric  acid,  muriatic 
acid  and  table  salt— one  ounce  of  each.  On  removing  from  the 
acid,  place  it  in  a  shallow  vessel  containing  enough  sour  beer  tc 
merely  cover  it;  then  with  a  fine  scratch  brush  scour  thoroughly, 
letting  it  remain  under  the  beer  during  the  operation.  Next  wash 
off,  first  in  pure  water  and  then  in  alcohol.  Gild  or  silver  in  accord- 
ance with  any  recipe  in  the  chapter  on  plating. 


To  Enamel  Gold  and  Silver.— Take  half  a  pennyweight  o1 
silver,  two  pennyweights  and  a  half  of  copper,  three  pennyweights 
and  a  half  of  lead,  and  two  pennyweights  and  a  half  of  muriate  01 
ammonia.  Melt  together  and  pour  into  a  crucible  with  twice  a; 
much  pulverized  sulphur;  the  crucible  is  then  to  be  immediate!} 
covered  that  the  sulphur  may  not  take  fire,  and  the  mixture  is  t< 
be  calcined  over  a  smelting  fire  until  the  superfluous  sulphur  u 
burned  away.  The  compound  is  then  to  be  coarsely  pounded,  anc 


2G2    RECEIPTS  FOE  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

with  a  solution  of  muriate  of  ammonia  to  be  formed  into  a  paste 
which  is  t<>  bi'  placed  upon  tin-  article  it  is  d.-sVn-'d  t..  enamel. 
Tli-  article  must  then  be  held  over  a  spirit  lamp  till  tin-  oompooad 
upon  it  melts  and  flows.  After  this  it  may  be  smoothed  and  pol- 
ished up  in  safety.  This  makes  the  black  enamel  now  so  much 
used  on  jewelry. 

To  Destroy  the  Effects  of  Acid  on  Clothes.—  Dampen  as 

soon  as  possible  after  exposure  to  the  acid  with  spirits  ammonia. 
It  will  destroy  the  effect  immediately. 

To  Wash  Silver  Ware.—  Never  use  a  particle  of  soap  on  your 

silverware,  as  it  dulls  the  lustre,  uivinii  the  article  more  the  ap- 
pearance of  pewter  than  -liver.  When  it  wants  cleaning  rub  it 
with  a  piece  .if  soft  leather  ami  prepared  chalk,  tin-  latt-r  made 
into  a  kind  of  pa-t>-  with  pure  water,  for  the  reason  that  water  not 
pure  might  contain  gritty  particles. 

To  Cleanse  Brushes.—  The  best  method  of  cleansing  watch- 

makers' and  jewelers'  brushes  is  to  wash  them  out  in  strong  soda 
water.  When  the  hacks  are  wood  you  must  favor  that  part  as 
much  as  possible,  for,  being  glued,  the  water  might  injure  them. 

To  Cut  Glass  Round  or  Oval  Without  a  Diamond.—  Scratch 
the  glass  around  the  shape  you  desire  with  the  corner  of  a  file  or 
graver:  th»n,  having  bent  a  piece  of  \vir-  in  the  same  -.hape.  heat 
it  red  hot  and  lay  it  upon  the  serateh,  sink  the  glass  into  cold  water 
just  deep  enough  for  the  water  to  come  almost  upon  a  level  with  its 
upper  surface.  It  will  rarely  ever  fail  to  break  perfectly  true. 

To  Re-Black  Clock  Hands.—  Fso  asphaltum  varnish.  One  coat 
will  make  old  rusty  hands  look  as  good  as  new,  and  it  dries  in  a 
few  minutes. 

Improved  Wood  Filing  Composition.  —  Japan,  }  pt.; 
boiled  linseed  oil,  t>  pt.  ;  turpentine,  }  pt.  ;  starch,  0  oz.  Mix 
veil  together  and  apply  to  the  wood.  On  walnut  wood  add  a 
little  burned  umber,  ou  cherry  a  little  Venetian  red,  to  the  above 
mixture. 


Planing  Metals.—  The  first  operation  about  planing  is  to  oil 
your  planer  and  find  out  if  the  lx-d  is  smooth.  If  it  is  not  file  off 
the  rough  places;  then  cli^ige  the  do^s  to  see  if  they  will  work 


well,  and  find  out  the  movements  of  the  planer.  After  doing  this, 
bolt  your  work  on  to  the  tx-d,  and  if  it  is  a  lout:,  thin  piece,  plane 
off  a  chip,  then  turn  it  over  and  finish  the  other  side,  taking  two 
chips,  the  last  of  which  should  be  very  1'mht.  (Jreat  care  should 
be  taken  in  bolting  the  bed  not  to  spring  it.  After  finishiii<;  this 
side  turn  it  to  the  other  side,  and  take  off  a  light  cut  to  finish  it. 

Planing  Perpendicularly.  —  In  planing  perpendicularly,  it  is 
necessary  ~to  swivel  the  bottom  of  the  small  hf»ad  around,  so  It  will 
Stand  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  inside  of  square,  towards  the 
piece  you  are  to  plane.  This  prevents  breaking  the  tool  when  the 
bed  runs  back. 

Gear  Cutting.—  In  cutting  gears,  they  are  reckoned  on  a  certain 


RECEIPTS  FOR  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES.    2G3 

number  of  teeth  to  the  inch,  measuring  across  the  diameter  to  a 
certain  line  which  Is  marked  on  tin-  face  or  sides  of  the  gear  with  a 
tool.  This  linn  is  one-half  the  depth  of  the  teeth  from  the  outer 
diameter.  That  is,  if  the  teeth  of  the  gear  are  two-tenths  of  an 
inch  deep,  this  line  would  be  one-tenth  of  an  inch  from  the  edge, 
and  is  called  the  pitch  line. 

Depth  of  Teeth.— Every  gear  cut  with  a  different  number  of 
teeth  to  the  inch,  should  he  cut  of  a  depth  to  the  pitch  line,  to  cor- 
respond with  the  number  of  teeth  to  the  inch.  This  is  called  pro- 
portion. Therefore,  if  you  cut  a  gear  eight  to  the  inch,  the  depth 
to  the  pitch  line  should  be  one-eighth  of  an  inch,  and  the  whole 
depth  of  the  tooth  would  be  two-eighths.  Again,  if  you  cut  a  gear 
twelve  to  the  inch,  the  depth  to  pitch  line  should  be  one-twelfth  of 
an  inch,  and  the  whole  depth  of  tooth  two-twelfths.  And  again,  if 
you  cut  a  gear  twenty  to  the  inch,  the  depth  to  pitch  line  should  be 
one-twentieth  of  an  inch,  while  the  whole  depth  should  be  two- 
twentieths,  and  so  on  ad  iuftnitum. 

Measuring  to  find  the  Number  of  Teeth.— To  find  the  size  a 
certain  gear  should  be,  for  a  certain  number  of  t  -eth,  is  an  easy 
matter  if  you  study  carefully  these  rules.  If  you  want  a  gear  with 
thirty-two  teeth  and  eight  to  the  inch,  it  should  be  four  inches, 
measuring  across  the  diameter  to  the  pitch  line,  and  the  two- 
eighths  outside  of  the  pitch  line  would  make  it  four  inches  and 
two-eighths.  Again,  if  you  want  a  gear  with  forty  teeth,  and  ten 
to  the  inch,  it  should  measure  across  Che  diameter  to  pitch  line  four 
Inches,  and  the  two-tenths  outside  the  pitch  line  would  make  the 
whole  diameter  four  inches  and  two-tenths.  And  again,  if  you 
want  a  gear  with  eighty  teeth,  and  twenty  to  the  inch,  it  should 
measure  to  the  pitch  line,  across  the  diameter,  four  inches,  and  the 
two-twentieths  outside  the  pitch  line  would  make  it  four  inches  and 
two-twentieths,  and  these  examples  will  form  a  rule  for  the  meas- 
urement of  all  except  bevel  gears. 

Bevel  Gears. — These  are  turned  a  certain  bevel  to  correspond 
with  each  other,  according  to  the  angle  upon  which  the  shafts 
driven  by  them  are  set.  For  instance,  if  two  shafts  are  set  upon 
an  angle  of  ninety  degrees,  the  surfaces  of  the  faces  of  these  gears 
will  stand  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees.  To  get  the  surface  of 
these  gears  in  turning  them,  put  a  straight  edge  across  the  face, 
then  set  your  level  on  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  and  try  the 
face  of  the  teeth  by  placing  the  level  on  a  straight  edge.  After 
turning  the  face  of  the  teeth,  square  the  outer  diameter  by  the  face 
of  the  teeth:  and  to  get  the  size  to  which  you  wish  to  cut,  measure 
from  the  centre  of  the  face  of  the  teeth.  Thus  if  a  bevel  gear  is 
six  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  face  of  the  teeth  is  one  inch,  you 
will  measure  from  the  centre  of  the  face,  and  find  it  is  five  inches. 
On  this  line  you  calculate  the  number  of  teeth  to  the  inch,  and  if 
you  want  a  gear  with  twenty  teeth,  and  ten  to  the  inch,  it  should 
measure  two  inches  across  the  face  to  the  centre  of  the  surface  of 
the  teeth;  and  if  the  face  of  the  teeth  were  one  inch  in  length,  the 
diameter  of  the  gear  would  be  three  inches,  and  the  inside  of  the 
teeth  would  measure,  only  one  inch.  Again  if  you  want  to  cut  a 


264    RECEIPTS  FOB  MECHANICAL  PURPOSES. 

gear  with  forty  teeth,  and  ten  to  the  inch,  it  would  measure  four 
inches  to  the  centre  of  the  tn-tl i  on  the  Mirface.  And  if  tin-  sur- 
face of  the  teeth  were  one  inrh  IOHM,  tin-  diamet-r  of  th"  gear 
would  Iw3  five  inches,  while  it  would  only  III.MMUV  three  inches 
inside  the  teeth.  These  examples  will  form  a  rule  for  all  bevel 
gear. 

Draw-Filing  and  Finishing.— To  draw-file  a  piece  of  work 
smoothly  and  quickly,  it  is  be>t  to  lir-t  draw-tile  it  with  a  medium 
fine  file,"  and  finish  with  a  superfine  til".  After  doing  this,  polUh 
the  work  with  dry  emery  paper,  and  then  with  emery  paper  and 
oil. 

Lining  Boxes  with  Babbitt  Metal.— To  line  boxes  properly,  so 
as  to  insure  their  filling  every  time,  it  is  MMMUTtohw  the  box 
nearly  red  hot,  or  at  least  hot  enough  to  melt  the  m.-tal.  Then 
smoke  the  shaft  where  the  metal  is  U  be  poured  upon  it.  This  in- 
sures its  coming  out  of  the  box  easily,  utter  it  is  cold.  After 
.smoking  the  shaft,  put  it  into  the  box  or  boxes,  and  draw  some 
putty  around  the  ends  of  them,  for  the  purpose  of  stopping  them, 
taking  care  not  to  press  upon  it,  for  if  you  do  it  will  go  into  the  box, 
and  fill  a  place  that  ought  to  he  filled  with  metal;  and  in  the  mean- 
time your  metal  ought  to  be  heated,  and  after  you  have  poured  it, 
let  the  box  stand  till  it  is  nearly  cold;  drive  out  your  shaft,  and  it  Is 
done. 

Making  Lining  Metal.— Molt  in  a  rnHhlo  one  and  a  half  ponnds 
of  copper,  and  while  the  copper  is  melting,  melt  in  a  ladle  twenty- 
five  pounds  of  tin,  and  three  of  antimony,  nearly  red  hot,  pour  the 
two  together,  and  stir  until  nearly  cool.  'This  makes  the  finest  kind 
of  lining  metaL 

Putting  Machines  Together.—  In  putting  machines  together  no 
part  should  be  finished  except  where  it  is  necessary  to  make  a  fit, 
as  it  is  sQmetimes  the  case  that  machinery  is  miscalculated,  and  by 
finishing  it  would  he  spoiled,  while  if  it  were  not  it  might  be  saved 
by  slight  alterations  in  design.  And  again,  in  finishing  certain 
parts  before  you  get  a  machine  together,  you  are  unknowingly 
finishing  part's  not  necessary  to  lie  finished,  ami  making  them  of  a 
pliape  anything  hut  de-irahle.  This  rule,  however,  is  not  intended 
to  apply  lo  machinery  beiug  made  to  detail  drawings. 

To  Drill  a  Hole  where  yon  have  no  Reamer. — Tt  is  some- 
times necessary  to  drill  a  hole  of  an  exact  si/.e  to  lit  a  certain  shaft, 
and  at  the  same  time  have  it  smooth  without  reaming  it.  This  may 
be  done,  by  first  drilling  a  hole,  a  one-hundredth  of  an  inch  smaller 
than  the  size  desired,  and  then  making  a  drill  the  exact  si/.e  and 
running  it  through  to  finish  with.  This  last  drill  should  have  the 
corners  of  its  lips  rounded,  like  a  reamer,  and  the  hole  should  be 
finished  without  holding  the  drill  with  a  rest. 

Boring  a  Hole  with  a  Boring  Tool.— Tn  boring  a  hoV  with 
a  boring  tool,  it  is  usually  necessary  to  drill  the  hole  first,  and  too 
much  cure  cannot  be  taken  in  finishing.  An  iron  gau-_re  should  be 
made  first;  is  usually  made  of  a  piece  of  sheet  iron  or  wire.  The 
hole  should  then  be'drilled  smaller  than  the  size  desired,  and  then 
bored  to  the  required  size,  and  it  is  impossible  to  bore  a  hole  perfect 


CEMENTS.  265 

without  taking  two  or  three  light  chips,  mere  scrapings  with  which 
to  finish.  Holes,  in  this  way,  may  be  bored  as  nicely  as  they  can 
be  reuuied. 

Squaring  or  Facing  up  Cast  Iron  Surfaces.— A  round  end 
tool  Is  best  for  Mils.  A  rough  chip  should  first  be  taken  off,  over 
the  entire  surface  to  be  faced.  Then  speed  your  lathe  up  and 
taking  a  light  chip,  merely  enough  to  take  out  tlic  first  tool  marks, 
run  over  the  entire  surface  again.  In  turning  up  surfaces  it  is 
always  Inrst  to  begin  at  the  centre  and  feed  out,  as  the  tool  cuts 
f  1 1 .  i  and  will  wear  twice  as  long. 

Boring  Holes  with  Boring  Arbor.— A  boring  arbor  is  a 
shaft  with  a  sU'e.l  set  in  it,  for  the  purpose  of  boring  holes  of  great 
length,  and  is  designed  to  be,  used  in  a  lathe.  In  doing  this  pro- 
perly, you  must  first  see  if  your  latho  is  set  straight.  If  not,  adjust 
It;  having  done  this,  put  the  piece  of  work  to  be  bored  in  the  car- 
riage of  your  lathe,  pass  your  arbor  through  the  hole  to  be  bored, 
and  put  it  on  the  centres  of  your  lathe.  Having  done  this,  adjust 
your  work  true  to  the  position  desired  by  measuring  from  the  point 
of  the  tool,  continually  turning  round  the  arbor  from  side  to  side  of 
the  piece  to  lie  bored,  while  you  are  bolting  it  to  the  carriage,  and 
measure  until  it  is  perfectly  true.  Having  done  this,  bore  the  hole, 
and  take  for  the  last  chip  only  a  hundredth  of  an  inch.  This  makes 
a  true  and  smooth  hole.  It  is  impossible  to  make  a  hole  true  with 
any  kind  of  a  tool  when  you  are  cutting  a  large  chip,  for  the  tool 
springs  so  that  no  dependence  can  be  placed  upon  it. 

To  make  a  Boring  Arbor  and  Tool  that  will  not  Chat- 
ter.— Boring  tools,  when  used  in  small  arbors,  are  always  liable 
to  chatter  and  make  a  rough  hole.  To  prevent  this,  the  tool  should 
be  turned  in  a  lathe,  while  in  its  position  in  the  arbor,  upon  the 
circle  of  the  size  of  the  hole  to  be  bored,  and  the  bearing  lengthwise 
of  the  arbor  should  be  only  as  wide  as  the  feed  of  the  lathe;  for  if 
the  bearing  of  the  tool  is  on  the  face,  the  more  it  will  chatter. 


CEMENTS. 

[See  other  pages  also.] 

Rust  Joint.— QUICK  SETTING.— 1  Ib.  sal  ammoniac  in  powder, 
2  Ibs.  of  flour  of  sulphur,  80  Ibs.  iron  borings.  Made  to  a  paste 
with  water.  SLOW  SETTING. — 2  Ibs.  sal  ammoniac,  1  Ib.  of  sulphur, 
200  Ibs.  iron  borings.  This  latter  cement  is  best  if  the  joint  is  not 
required  for  immediate  use. 

For  Steam  Boilers,  Steam  Pipes,  Etc.—  SOFT.  — T?ed  or  white 
lead  in  oil,  4  parts;  iron  borings,  2  to  3  parts.  HARD. — Iron  borings 
and  salt  water,  and  a  small  quantity  of  sal  ammoniac  with  fresh 
water. 

Maltha,  or  Greek  Mastic.— Lime  and  sand  mixed  in  the  man- 
ner of  mortar,  and  made  into  a  proper  consistency  with  milk  or 
size  without  water. 


266  BROWNING. 

For  China.— Curd  of  mill;,  (Inert  and  powdered,  10  07.;  quick- 
lime, 1  <)/..;  camphor,  '_'  drachms.  Mix,  and  keep  in  closely  stopped 
butil'-s.  When  ns-.-d.a  portion  is  to  In;  mixed  with  a  little  water 
into  a  paste. 

Tor  Earthen  and  Glassware.— TTcat  the  article  to  bo  mended 
ft  little  above  313°.  then  apply  :i  thin  coating  of  mim  shellac  upon 
both  surfaces  of  the  broken  vessel.  Or,  dissolve  jruin  shellac  in 
alcohol,  apply  the  solution,  and  bind  the  parts  firmly  together  until 
the  cement  is  dry. 

Holes  in  Casting. — Sulphur  In  powder,  1  part;  sal  ammoniac,  2 
parts;  powdered  iron  turnings,  80  parts.  Make  into  a  thick  paste. 
The  ingredients  composing  this  cement  should  be  kept  separate, 
and  not  mixed  until  required  for  use. 

For  Marble.—  Planter  of  Pa^is,  in  a  sattirated  solution  of  alum, 
baked  in  an  oven,  and  n-due -d  to  powder.  Mixed  with  water.  It 
may  be  mixed  with  various  colors. 

For  Mirble  Workers  and  Coppersmiths.  —  White  of  egg, 
mixed  with  finely  sifted  quicklime,  will  unite  objects  which  arc  n<»t 
submitted  to  moisture. 

Transparent  for  Glass.— India  rubber,  1  part  in  61  of  chloro- 
form, add  cum  mastic  in  powder,  1G  to  24  parts.  Digest  for  two 
days  with  frequent  shaking. 

To  Mend  Iron  Ware.— Sulphur,  2  parts;  fine  black  lead,  1  part. 
Put  the  sulphur  in  an  iron  pan  over  a  tire,  until  it  melts,  then  add 
the  lead;  stir  well;  then  pour  out.  When  cool,  lueak  into  small 
pieces.  A  sufficient  quantity  of  this  compound  heinu  placed  upon 
the  crack  of  the  ware  to  be  mended,  can  be  soldered  by  an  iron. 

For  Cisterns  and  Water  Casks. — Melted  trine,  8  parts;  lin- 
seed oil,  4  parts;  boiled  into  a  varnish  with  litharge.  This  cement 
hardens  in  about  48  hours,  and  renders  the  joints  of  wooden  cisterns 
and  casks  air  and  water  tight. 

Hydraulic  Cement  Paint. — Hydraulic,  cement  mixed  with  oil 
forms  an  incombustible  and  waterproof  paint  for  roofs  of  buildings, 
out-houses,  walls,  etc. 

Entomologists'  Cement.— Thick  mastic  varnish  and  isinglass 
size,  equal  parts. 


BROWNING. 

[See  other  pages  also.] 

Browning,  or  Bronzing  Liquid. —  Sulphate  of  copper,  1  01. ; 
sweet  spirit  of  nitre,  1  oz.  ;  water,  1  pint.  Mix.  In  a  few  days  it 
will  be  fit  for  use. 


GLUES.  207 

Browning  for  Gun  Barrels.— Tinct  of  mur.  of  iron,  1  oz.- 
nitrii:  ftli.-r,  1  o/..:  sulphate  of  copper,  4  scruples-  rain  water  1 
pint.  If  the  proems  Is  to  be  hurried,  add  2  or  3  grains  of  oxymuri- 
ate  of  mercury.  When  the  barrel  is  finished,  let  it  remain  a  short 
time  in  une  water,  to  neutralize  any  acid  which  may  have  pene- 
trated; then  rub  it  well  with  an  iron  wire  scratch  brush. 

Hardening  Compound  used  in  Damascus  Sword  Blades. 
—  The  blade  is  covered  with  a  paste  formed  of  equal  parts  of  barilla, 
powdered  egg-shells,  borax,  common  salt,  and  crude  soda;  bentcd 
to  a  moderate  red  heat,  and  just  as  the  red  is  turning  to  a  black 
heat,  quench  it  in  spring  water. 

LACKERS. 

For  Small  Arms,  or  "Waterproof  Paper.— Beeswax,  13  Ibs.; 
spirits  of  turpentine,  13  gallons;  boiled  linseed  oil,  1  gallon.  All  the 
ingredients  should  be  pure  and  of  the  best  quality.  Heat  them  to- 
gether, in  a  copper  or  earthen  vessel  over  a  gentle  fire,  in  a  water- 
bath,  until  they  are  well  mixed. 

For  Bright  Iron  "Work.— Linseed  oil,  boiled,  80.5;  litharge,  5.5: 
white  lead,  in  oil,  11.25;  resin,  pulverized,  2.75.  -Add  the  litharge 
to  the  oil;  let  it  simmer  over  a  slow  fire  3  hours;  strain  it,  and  add 
the  resin  and  white  lead;  keep  it  gently  warmed,  and  stir  it  until 
the  resin  is  dissolved. 

INKS. 

Indelible,  for  Marking  Linen,  Etc. — 1.  Juice  of  sloes,  1  pint; 
gum,  X  an  ounce.  This  requires  no  "preparation"  or  mordant, 
and  is  very  durable.  2.  Nitrate  of  silver,  1  part;  water,  6  parts; 
gum,  1  part.  Dissolve.  MARKING. — Lunar  caustic,  2  parts;  sap 
green  and  gum  arabic,  each  1  part;  dissolve  with  distilled  water. 
THE  "  PREPARATION."— Soda,  1  ounce;  water,  1  pint;  sap  green, 
X  drachm.  Dissolve,  and  wet  the  article  to  be  marked,  then  dry 
and  apply  the  ink. 

PERPETUAL,  FOK  TOKB  STONES,  MARBLE,  ETC.— Pitch,  11  parts; 
lampblack,  1  part;  turpentine  sufficient.  Warm  and  stir. 

COPYING  INK.— Add  1  oz.  of  sugar  to  a  pint  of  ordinary  ink. 

GLUES. 

[See  other  pages  also.] 

For  Parchment.— Parchment  shavings,  1  lb.;  water,  6  quarts. 
Boil  until  dissolved,  then  strain  and  evaporate  slowly  to  the  proper 
consistence. 

Rice  Glue,  or  Japanese  Cement.— Rice  flour;  -water,  sufficient 
quantity.  Mix  together  cold,  then  boil,  stirring  it  all  the  time. 


268  VARNISHES. 

Liquid.— Glue,  water,  and  vinegar,  each  2  parts.  Dissolve  in  a 
water-bath,  then  add  alcohol,  1  part.  Or,  cologne  or  strong  glue, 
2.2  Ibs.;  water,  1  quart;  dissolved  over  a  gentle  heat;  add  nitric 
acid  ;«i°,  7  <>/..,  in  .small  quantities.  Remove  from  the  tire  and  cool. 
Or,  white  glue,  10  »>/..;  white  leail,  dry,  4  o/.;  rain  water,  •_'  pints. 
Add  alcohol,  -1  oz.,  and  continue  the  heat  for  a  few  minutes. 

Marine.— Dissolve  India-rubber,  4  parts,  in  ."M  parts  of  coal-tar 
naphtha;  add  powdered  shellac,  (54  part-,.  While  the  mixture  is  hot  it 
is  poured  upon  metal  plates  in  sheets.  When  required  for  iise.it  is 
heated,  and  then  applied  with  a  brush.  Or,  1  part  India-rubher,  12 
parts  of  coal-tar;  heat  gently,  mix,  and  add  20  parts  of  p. 
shellac.  Pour  out  to  cool.  When  used,  heat  to  about  250°.  Or, 
glue,  12  parts;  water,  sufficient  to  dissolve;  and  yellow  resin.  .'{ 
parts;  and,  when  melted,  add  turpentine,  4  parts.  Mix  thoroughly 
together. 

STKONO  GLUE. — Add  powdered  chalk  to  common  glue. 

GUM  MUCILAGE.— A  little  oil  of  cloves  poured  into  a  bottle  con- 
taining guui  mucilage,  prevents  it  from  becoming  sour. 

Glue  to  Resist  Moisture.—  5  parts  glue,  4  parts  rosin,  2  parts 
red  ochre,  mixed  with  the  least  practicable  quantity  of  water. 
Or,  4  parts  of  glue,  1  part  of  boiled  oil  by  weight,  1  part  oxide 
of  iron.  Or,  1  Ib.  of  glue  melted  in  2  quarts  of  slummed  milk. 

VARNISHES. 

[See  other  pages  also.] 

Waterproof. —  Flour  of  sulphur,  1  Ib. ;  Linseed-oil,  1  pal.; 
boil  them  until  they  are  thoroughly  combined.  This  forms  a 
good  varnish  for  waterproof  textile  fabrics.  Another  is  made  of 
oxide  of  lead,  4  Ibs.;  lampblack,  2  Ibs. ;  sulphur,  5  oz.;  and  India- 
rubber  dissolved  in  turpentine,  10  Ibs.  Boil  together  until  they  are 
thoroughly  combined. 

To  Adhere   Engravings    or  Lithographs   upon   Wood. — 

Sandarach,  •_'."»()  parts:    mastic  in    tears,  64;  resin,  125;  Venice  tur- 
pentine, 250;  and  alcohol,  1000  parts  by  measure. 

For  Harness.— India-rubber,  }4  Ib.;  spirits  of  turpentine,  1 
pal.;  dissolve  into  a  jelly;  then  take  hot  linseed  oil,  equal  parts 
with  the  mass,  and  incorporate  them  well  over  a  slow  fire. 

For  Fastening  Leather  on  Top  Rollers.— Gum  Arabic.  2|^ 
oz.,  dissolved  in  water,  and  a  like  volume  of  isinglass  dissolved 
in  water. 

To  Preserve  Glass  from  the  Rays  of  the  Sun.— Reduce 
a  quantity  of  gum  tngmeurth  to  tine  powder,  and  let  it  dissolve  for 
24  hours  in  white  ot  eggs  well  beat  up. 

For  Water-Color  Drawings.— Canada  balsam,  1  part;  oil  of 
turpentine,  2  parts,  mixed.  Size  the  drawing  before  applying  the 
varnish. 


PAINTING.  269 

POT  Objects  of  Natural  History,  for  Shells,  Fish,  &c.- 
Mucilace  of  gum  tragacant.h  and  mucilage  of  sum  arable,  each  1 
oz.  Mix,  and  add  spirit  with  corrosive  sublimate,  so  as  to  precipi- 
tate the  more  stringy  part  of  the  gum. 

For  Articles  of  Iron  and  Steel. — floar  grains  of  mastic,  10 
parts;  camphor,  5  parts;  sandarach,  15  parts;  and  elemi,  5  parts. 
Dissolve  In  a  sufficient  quantity  of  alcohol,  and  apply  without 
heat.  This  varnish  will  retain  its  transparancy,  and  the  metallic 
brilliancy  of  the  article  will  not  be  obscured. 

For  Gun  Barrels,  after  Browning.  —  Shellac.  1  oz.;  Dragon's 
blood,  J^  oz. ;  rectified  spirit,  1  quart.  Dissolve  and  filter. 

Black.— Heat  to  boiling,  10  parts  of  linseed  oil  varnish  with 
burnt  umber,  2  parts,  and  powdered  asphaltum,  1  part.  When 
cooled,  dilute  with  spirits  of  turpentine  as  required. 

Balloon. — Melt  India-rubber  in  small  pieces  with  its  weight  of 
boiled  linseed  oil.  Thin  with  oil  of  turpentine. 

Transfer.— Alcohol,  5  oz. ;  pure  Venice  turpentine,  4  oz. ;  mas- 
tic, 1  oz. 

To  Clean  Varnish.— Mix  a  lye  of  potash,  or  soda,  with  a  little 
powdered  chalk. 

Composition  for  Rendering  Canvas  Waterproof  and 
Pliable.— Yellow  soap,  1  lb.,  boiled  in  6  pints  of  water,  add, 
while  hot,  to  112  Ibs.  of  paint 

Good  Painting  requires  4  or  6  coals;  but  usually  only  4  are 
used  in  principal  rooms ;  and  3  in  inferior  ones.  Each  coat  must 
be  allowed  to  dry  perfectly  before  the  next  one  is  put  on.  One  lb. 
of  the  keg  paint  will,  after  being  thinned,  cover  about  2  sq.  yds.  of 
first  coat ;  3  yds.  of  second ;  and  4  yds.  of  each  subsequent  coat ;  or 
1  sq.  yd.  of  3  coats  will  require  in  all,  1-08  Ibs. ;  of  4  coats,  1£  Ibs. ; 
of  5  coats,  1-58  Ibs.  The  reason  why  the  first  coats  require  so  much 
more  than  the  subsequent  ones,  is  that  the  bare  surface  of  the  wood 
absorbs  it  more. 

Painting  of  Brick  Work.  —  A  square  yard  of  new  brick  wall 
requires  for  the  first  coat  of  paint  in  oil,  |  lb. ;  and  for  the  second, 
•3;  and  for  the  third,  -4. 


270  MISCELLANEOUS. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

To  Clean  Marble.— Chalk,  powdered,  and  pumice-stone,  each 

1  part;  soda.  :_'  paris.  Mix  with  water.  Wa^h  tin-  spots,  then 
clean  and  wash  off  with  soap  aud  water. 

To  Extract  Grease  from  Stone   or   Marble.— Soft  soap,  1 

part;  Fuller's  earth,  '1  part-;  potash,  l  part.  Mix  witli  boiling 
water.  Lay  it  upon  the  spots,  and  let  it  remain  for  a  few  hours. 

Paint  for  Window  Glass.  —  Chrome  green,  ^  oz.;  sugar  of 
lead,  1  11).;  ground  line,  in  sufficient  linked  oil  to  iii.«i>ti-n  it.  Mix 
to  toe  consistency  of  cream,  and  apply  with  a  soft  brush.  The 
glass  should  be  well  cleaned  before  the  paint  is  applied.  The 
above  quantity  is  sufficient  for  about  200  feet  of  glues. 

Durable  Paste.  —  Make  common  flour  paste  rather  thick  (by 
mixing  some  tlmir  with  a  little  <•</'/  wat-r  until  it  is  of  uniform  con- 
sistency, and  then  stir  it  well  while  bvVin-j  water  H  being  added  to 
it;)  ad'd  a  little  brown  sugar  and  OOOOHTfl  sublimate,  which  will 
prevent  fermentation,  and  a  few  drops  of  oil  of  lavender,  which 
will  prevent  it  becoming  mouldy.  When  this  pa^te  dries  it  may  IKJ 
used  again  by  dissolving  it  in  water.  It  will  keep  for  two  or  three 
years  in  a  covered  vessel. 

Dubbing.— Resin,  2  Ibs.;  tallow,  lib.;  train-oil,  1  gallon. 

Blacking  for  Harness.— Bees'  wax,  *4  lb.;  ivory  black,  2  oz  • 

spirit-  ot  turpentine,  1  o/..;  1'rus-ian  blue  ground  in  oil.  Lo 
varnish,    \^  oz.     Melt  the  wax  and  stir  it  into   the  other  ingredi- 
ents before   the  mixture  is  quite  cold;  make  it  into  balls.     Hub  a 
little  upon  a  brush,  and  apply  it  upon  the  harm  s>,  then  p«.li>h  lightly 
with  silk. 

To  Prevent  Iron  from  Rusting.— Warm  it;  then  nib  with 
white  wax:  put  it  again  to  the  fire  until  the  wax  has  pervaded  the 
entire  surface.  Or,  immerse  tools  or  bright  work  in  boiled  linseed 
oil  and  allow  it  to  dry  upon  them. 

Paper  for  Draughtsmen,  &c.— Powdered  tragacanth,  1   part; 

water.  10  parts;  dissolve,  and  strain  through  cl-an  gauze,  then  lav 
it  smoothly  upon  the  paper,  previously  stretched  upon  a  board. 
This  paper  will  take  either  oil  or  water-colors. 

To  Remove  Old  Ironmould.— Remoisten  the  part  stained  with 
ink.  remove  this  by  the  use  of  muriatic  acid  diluted  by  5  or  (>  times 
its  weight  of  water,  when  the  old  and  new  stain  will'be  removed. 

Pastiles  for  Fumigating. — Gum  arable,  2  oz.;  charcoal  powder, 
,r>o/..;  oaacariliabark,  po\vdcr-d  ^o/..;  saltpetre,  yt  drachm.  Mix  to- 
gether with  water,  and  make  into  shape. 

For  "Writing  Upon  Zinc  Labels— Horticultural.— Dissolve 
100  gr.  of  chloride  of  platinum  in  a  pin!  of  water;  add  ;i  little  mu- 
cilage and  lamp-black.  Or,  sal-ammoniac,  1  dr :  verdigiis,  1  dr.: 
lamp-back,  %  dr.;  water,  10  drs.  Mix. 


MISCELLANEOUS.  271 

Booth's  Grease  for  Railway  Axles.—  Water,  1  gall,;  clean 
tallow,  3  Ibs.;  palm  oil,  «  Ibs.;  common  soda,  U  lb.;  or,  tallow,  8 
Ibs.  ;  palm  oil,  10  Ibs.  To  be  heated  to  about  212°,  and  to  be  well 
stirred  until  it  cools  to  70°. 

Anti-friction  Gr»as«.—  100  Ibs.  tallow,  70  llw.  palm  oil.  Boiled 
together,  and  when  cooled  to  80°,  strain  through  a  sieve,  and  mix 
with  28  Ibs.  of  Soda  and  1M  gals,  of  water.  For  winter,  take  25 
Ibs.  more  oil  in  place  of  the  tallow.  Or  black  lead,  1  part;  lard,  4 

Llard.—  50  parts  of  finest  rape  oil  and  1  part  of  caoutchouc,  cut 
email.  Apply  beat  until  it  is  nearly  all  dissolved. 

Stain*.—  To  REMOVE—  Stains  of  ladin*  are  removed  by  rectified 
spirit.  I  a!.-  stains  by  oxalic  or  superoxalate  of  potash,  tronmoulda 
by  the  same;  but  if  obstinate,  moisten  them  with  ink,  then  re- 
move them  in  the  usual  way. 

RED  SPOTS  upon  black  cloth  from  acids  are  removed  by  spirts  of 
hartshorn,  or  other  solutions  of  ammonia. 

STAINS  of  MARKING-INK,  OR  NITRATE  OP  SILVER.—  Wet  the  stain 
witli  fre.sh  solution  of  cloride.  of  lime,  and  utter  10  or  15  minutes,  if 
the  marks  have  become  white,  dip  the  part  in  solution  of  ammonia 
or  of  hyposulphite  of  soda.  In  a  few  minutes  wash  with  clean  water. 
Or  stretch  tin-  stained  linen  over  a  basin  of  hot  water,  and  wet  the 
mark  with  tincture  of  iodine. 

Preservative  Paste  for  Objects  of  Natural  History.— 
White  arsenic,  1  lb.;  powdered  hellebore,  2  Ibs. 

Paste  for  Cleaning  Metals.—  Oxalic  acid,  1  part;  rottenstone, 
6  parta.  Mix  with  equal  parts  of  train  oil  and  spirits  of  turpentine. 

"Watchmaker's  Oil,  'which  never  Corrodes  or  Thickens.— 
Place  coils  of  thin  sheet  lead  in  a  bottle  with  olive  oil.  Expose  it 
to  the  sun  for  a  few  weeks,  and  pour  off  the  clear  oil. 

Blacking,  Without  Polishing.  —  Molasses,  4  oz.  ;  lamp-black, 
$oz.;  y  east,  a  tablespoon  ful;  eggs,  2;  oliveoil.ateiwpoontnl;  turpentine, 
ateaapoonful.  Mix  well.  To  be  applied  with  aaponge,  without  brushing. 

To  Preserve  Sails.—  Slacked  lime,  2  bushels.  Draw  off  the 
lime  water,  and  mix  it  with  120  gallons  water,  and  with  blue  vitriol, 


•Whitewash.—  For  outside  exposure,  slack  lime,  M  a  bushel,  in  a 
barrel:  add  common  salt,  1  lb.;  sulphate  of  zinc,  }$  lb.;  and  sweet 
milk,  1  gal. 

To  Preserve  Woodwork..—  Boiled  oil  and  finely  powdered 
charcoal,  each  1  pait;  mix  to  the  consistence  of  paint.  Lay  on  2  or 
3  coats  with  it.  This  composition  is  well  adapted  for  casks,  water- 
spouts, Ac. 

To  Polish  Wood.—  Rub  surface  with  pumice  stone  and  water 
18 


272  MISCELLANEOUS. 

until  the  rising  of  the  grain  is  removed.     Then,  with  powdered 
tripoli  and  boiled  linseed  oil,  polish  to  a  bright  surface. 

To  Clean  Brass  Ornaments.— Brass  ornaments  that  have  not 
been  gilt  or  lackered  may  be  cleaned,  and  a  very  brilliant  color 
given  to  them,  by  washing  them  in  alum  boiled  in  strong  lye,  In  the 
proportion  of  an  ounce  to  a  pint,  uucl  afterward  rubbing  them  with 
strong  tripoli. 

Adhesive  Cement  for  Fractures  of  all  Kinds.—  White  load 
ground  with  linseed  oil  varnish,  and  kept  out  of  contact  with  the 
air.  It  requires  a  few  weeks  to  harden.  When  stone  or  iron  an-  to 
be  cemented  together,  use  a  compound  of  equal  parts  of  sulphur 
and  pitch. 


INDEX. 


Alloy  »    and    Compositions,   164, 

165. 

Arches  and  Abutments,  82. 
Artiilr.-r*'  Rules  and  Tablet. 
Bricklayers'  work,  measurement 

of,  71. 
Carpenters'  and  Joiners'  work, 

measurement  of,  74. 
Glaziers'     work,    measurement 

of,  79. 
Masons'  work,  measurement  of, 

73. 
Pavers'  work,  measurement  of, 

78. 
Painters'  work,  measurement  of, 

79. 
Plasterers'  work,  measurement 

of,  78. 
Plumbers'  work,  measurement 

of,  80. 
Slaters'  work,  measurement  of, 

76. 

Wells   and    Cisterns,   measure- 
ment of,  73. 
Jft-iiiHu.  Strength  and  Stiff****  of, 

120,  130,  133. 
Belts,  61. 

Casks,  gauging  of,  160. 
Ullage  of,  163. 

Co* tiny*,  wright  of,  147. 

Shrinkage  of,  120. 
Centrifugal  Force,  139. 
Columns,  hollow,  137. 

Solid,  135. 
Crane,  138. 
it-mi".  118. 
Dine,  revolving,  120. 
Epitome  of  Mensuration, 

Circles,  44. 

Cones,  47. 

Cubes,  45. 

8 


Cylinder,  44. 
Ellipses,  47. 
Frustums,  47. 
Polygons,  46. 

Regular,  table  of  areas  of, 

Rectangles,  45. 

Spheres,  44. 

Square,  45. 

Surfaces  and  solidities  of  regu- 
lar bodies,  46. 

Triangles,  46. 
Friction,  139. 
Ice,  Strength  of,  120. 
l,,-tr,,,n,  ,,t,,l  Arithmetic. 

Gauge  points  for  common  slide 
rule,  51. 

Gauge  points  for  engineers' 
rule,  51. 

Mensuration  of  solidity  and  ca- 
pacity, 62. 

Mensuration  of  surface,  50. 

Numbers,  to  divide  upon  the 
rule,  49. 

Numbers,  to  find  geometrical 
and  mean  proportion  between 
two,  50. 

Numbers,  to  multiply  by  the 
rule,  48. 

Numbers,  square  and  cube  roots 
of,  49. 

Numeration,  48. 

Proportion,  or  rule  of  three  di- 
rect, 49. 

Rule  of  three  inverse,  49. 

Slide  rule,  utility  of,  48. 

Square  and  cube  roots  of  num- 
bers, 49. 

Surface,  mensuration  of,  50. 
Iron  Chains,  127. 
Iron  Work*  (England),  84. 
273 


274 


INDEX. 


Cements,    Mortars   and 
Concretes,  62. 
Mills,  Flour,  Saw,  Wood  Cnttiny, 

84. 

31  in  in ff  and  Wasting,  86. 
Notts  and  Spikes,  welyht  of,  128, 

129. 

Pedestal  Bracket,  139. 
Practical  Geometry. 
Arch,  flat,  to   draw  by  the  in- 
tersection of  lines,  42. 
Corners  of  a  given  square,  to  cat 
off  so  as  to  form  a  regular  oc- 
tagon, 36. 

Curved  lines,  method  of  draw- 
ing, 38. 
Ellipse,  to  describe,  by  means  of 

a  carpenter's  square,  40. 
Ellipse,  to  draw,  by  means   of 

two  concentric  circles,  39. 
Ellipse,  to  draw,  with  rule  and 

compasses.  38. 
Ellipse,  to  find  centre  and  two 

•£•<<  4L 
Equilateral  triangle  within    a 

given  circle,  to  inscribe,  34. 
Hexagon,    regular,    within     a 

given  circle,  to  inscribe,  36. 
Line,  a  given,   to  divide   into 
any  number  of  parts,  equal  or 
unequal,  etc.,  36. 
Line,  a  given,  to  draw  a  poly- 
gon of  any  number  of  sides 
on,  etc.,  37. 

Lines,  curved,  method  of  draw- 
ing, 38. 

Moulding,  raking,  to  find  form  or 
curvature    of,   to  unite  with 
level  one,  42. 
Pentagon,    regular,    within    a 

given  circle,  to  inscribe,  35. 
IMurn,  in  open  or  broken  pedi- 
ment, to  mid  form  or  curva- 
ture of,  43. 
Square,  within  a  given  circle,  to 

inscribe,  35. 

Pump,  Cold  Water,  139. 
Receipts   for  Mechanical    Pur- 
pones. 
Acid,  fluoric.  200. 

On  clothes,  to  destroy  the 

effects  of,  262. 
Acids,  dipping  175. 

Tinning,  for  brass  or  zinc, 
175. 


Alabaster,  how  to  stain,  234. 

Albata  metal,  171. 

Alloy,  anti-friction,  for  journal 

boxes,  17!'. 
Bushing,   for   pivot   holes, 

etc.,  in  watches,  248. 
For  bronze  ornaments,  173. 
For  calico  printing  blocks, 

172. 

For    cylinders    of   locomo- 
tives, 17-2. 
For  gold,  169, 170. 
For  gun  mountings,  171. 
For  journal  boxes  180. 
For      mechanical     instra- 

ments,  17 1'. 

For  silver  coin  and  plate,  169. 
For  silver,  French  patent, 

170. 

For  stuffing -boxes  of  loco- 
motives, 172. 
For  symbals,  173. 
For  watch  pinion  sockets, 

171. 

Fusible,  167. 
Fusible,  for  silvering  glass, 

167. 

Hard,  Chantry's,  171. 
Jewellers',  248. 

Amalgam,    for    electrical    ma- 
chines, 173. 
For  mirrors.  172. 
Gold,  to  make,  260. 
Gold,  to  plate  with,  260. 
Anatomical  injections,  metal  for, 

174. 

Ancient  bronze,  173. 
Angler's  secret  for  fish,  235. 
Annealing,  194. 
Antique  bronze  paint,  176. 
Argentine,  white,  173. 
Armenian  cement,  jewellers',  198 
Artificial  gold,  170. 
Assaying  gold  and  silver,  193. 
Babbitt  metal,  170. 

Lining  boxes  with,  264. 
Bath  metal,  178. 
Battery,  to  plate  with  a,  259. 
Bell  metal,  166, 171, 172, 174,243. 
Bevel  gears,  263. 
Bidery,  171. 

Birmingham  platin,  171. 
Bismuth  sohk-r,  17-. 
Black,  having  a  polish  for  iron, 
183. 


INDEX. 


275 


Blacking,  for  harness,  270. 
Blacking,  oil  paste,  226. 

Water-proof,  226. 
Blacking  without  polishing,  271 
Blue,   transparent,   for  iron  o 

steel,  186. 
Blueing  from  steel,  to  remove 

255. 

Boilers,  incrustation  of,  243. 
Soft  cement  for,  186. 
To  prevent  deposits  of  limi 

in,  182. 

Books  or  paper,  to  marble,  231. 
Boot  and  shoe  edge,  best  color 

for  225. 
Booth's  grease,  for  railway  axles, 

Borax,  substitute  for,  184. 
Boring,  arbor,. 265. 

Tool  boring  a  hole  with,  264. 
Botany  Bay  wood,  imitation  of, 

Bottle  glass,  237. 
Brass,  106,  172,  174,  179. 

Acids  for,  175. 

Best,  for  fine  castings,  166. 

Buttonmakers',  174. 

For  clocks,  171. 

For  heavy  castings,  179. 

For  wire,  173. 

German,  179. 

Lacquers  for,  175, 176, 177. 

Malleable,  172. 

Solder  for,  167. 

Solution,  192. 

To  clean  and  polish,  188. 

To  hard  solder,  258. 

To  temper  or  draw  temper 
from,  253. 

Vinegar,  bronze  for,  175. 

Watchmakers',  179. 

Work,  to  prepare  for  ormolu 

dipping,  175. 
Bridle  stain,  228. 
Britannia  metal,  166,  167,  171, 
173,  178. 

Hardening  for,  166. 
British  plate,  171. 
Broaches,  diamond,  to  make,  255. 

Polishing,  to  make,  255. 
Bronze,  173. 

Dip,  177. 

Metal,  166. 

Ornaments,  alloy  for,  173. 

Powder,  224. 


Bronze  powder,  red,  173. 
Brass,  243. 
Cannon,  173. 
Medals,  173. 
Medals  of  all  kinds,  177. 
Bronzing  fluid  for  guns,  173. 
General  directions  for,  223. 
Iron,  223. 
Liquid,  226. 

Mosaic,  gold  powder  for,  222. 
Plaster  casts,  223. 
Wood,  224. 

Browning  for  gun  barrels,  188, 
189,  267. 
For  twist,  189. 
Liquid  226. 
Brunswick  black,  for  grates,  etc., 

188. 

Brushes,  to  clean,  202. 
Burning  fluid,  the  northern  light, 

248. 

Burnished  gilding,  French,  223. 
Burnishers,  to  make,  255. 

To   prepare  for   polishing, 

Bushing  alloy,  for  pivot  holes, 

etc.,  in  watches,  248. 
Buttonmakers'  metal,  172. 
Buttons,  hard  white  metal  for, 

171. 

Cabinetmakers'  varnish,  216. 
Calico  printing  blocks,  alloy  for, 

172. 
Cannon,  bronze  for,  173. 

Metal,  173. 
Cans,  tin,  188. 
Canvas,  flexible  paint  for,  213. 

Patent  varnish  for,  217. 
Carriage  varnish,  216. 
Carriages,  prepared  oil  for,  212. 
Case-hardening  for  iron,  184. 
Cast  brass,  dipping  acid  for,  175. 
Britannia  ware,  soft  solder 

for,  167. 
Iron  scaling,  182. 

Surfaces,   squaring    or 

facing  up,  265. 
To  enamel,  192. 
To  soften,  for  drilling, 

185. 

To  weld,  180. 
Castings,  167. 

Heavy  brass  for,  179. 
Iron,  to  bronze,  176. 
To  fill  holes  in,  176. 


276 


INDEX. 


Cast,  plaster  of  Paris,  to  take  from 

a  person's  face,  244. 
Cast  steel,  to  harden  and  temper, 
244. 

To  weld,  243. 

Ceilings,  blue  color  for,  209. 
Cements,  181,  186,  188,  198,  213, 
214, 226, 232, 234, 265, 266,  272. 
Chains,  brass,  chain  dip  solution 

for.  245. 
Chalk  for  cleaning,  to  prepare, 

250. 

Chantry's  hard  alloy,  171. 
Cherry  stain,  220. 
China  gilding,  200. 

Gold  lustre  for  200. 
Chinese  gong  metal,  171. 
Silver,  173. 
White  copper,  178. 
Chrome  green,  210. 

Yellow,  210. 
Clicks,  etc.,  of  watches,  to  temper, 

254. 

Clock,  bell  metal,  172. 
Best  brass  for,  171. 
Faces,  etc.,  to  silver,  190. 
Hands,  to  re-black,  262. 
To  clean,  256. 
To   make  strike   correctly, 

257. 

To  oil  properly,  256. 
Wheels,  to  put  teeth  in  with- 
out dovetailing  or  solder- 
ing, 247. 

Clothing  renovator,  236. 
Cock  metal,  166. 
Colored  gold,  169. 
Color  for  lacquer,  177. 
Colors,  compound,  205. 
Coloring  of  gilding,  197. 
Compositions,  179,  182,  183,  189, 


Copper,  enamelling  on,  194. 

Plates  or  rods,  to  coat  with 
brass,  191. 

Powder.  223. 

Solder  for,  167,  168. 

Solution  of,  on  zinc,  191. 

Stew  dishes,  etc.,  187. 

To  hard  solder,  258. 

To  refine,  257. 

Vessel,  etc.,  to  enamel,  192. 
Cream,  painters',  213. 
Crimson,  satin,  218. 
Crucibles,  265,  266,  272. 


Crystallized  tin  plate,  187. 
Curriers'  paste,  230. 
Size,  230. 
Skirting,  230. 
Cntlerv,  tempering,  189. 
Cylinders  of  locomotives,  alloy 
"for.  172. 

Of  watches,  to  temper,  254. 
Dams,  240,  241,  242. 
Deer  skins,  tanning  and  buffing, 

227. 

Dentists'  emery  wheels,  243. 
Deposits  of  lime  in  boilers,  to  pre- 
vent, 182. 

Diamond  files,  to  make,  255. 
Diamond  mill,  to  make,  246. 
Dip  bronze,  177. 
Dipped  brass,  lacquer  for,  175, 

176. 

Dipping  acids,  175. 
Door  plates,  to  make,  198. 
Draughtsmen,  paper  for,  270. 
Draw-filing  and  finishing. 
Drills,  to  temper,  198,  253. 

Watchmakers',  190. 
Drying  oils,  212. 
Dutch  gold  powders,  223. 
Dyes  for  ivory,  horn,  and  bone, 

233. 

For  leather,  230. 
For  veneers,  235. 
Ebony  stain,  220. 
Edge  (boot,  shoe,  and  harness) 

blacking,  225. 
Edge  (boot,  shoe,  and  harness) 

varnish,  226. 
Electrical    machine,    amalgam 

for,  173. 
Electro  gold  and  silver  plating, 

19* 
Electro-plating,   to    make  gold 

solution  for,  258. 
Electro-plating,  to  make  silver 

solution  for,  259. 
Electrum.  243. 
Emery  wheels,  dentists',  243. 
Emery  wheels,  for  polishing,  193. 
Enamelled  cast  iron,  192. 
Enamelling  on  gold  and  copper, 

194. 

English  standard  for  silver,  170. 
Etching  fluid  for  ivory,  233. 
On  glass,  199. 
Varnish,  199. 
Etruscan  gold  coloring,  246. 


INDEX. 


277 


Factitious  gold,  169. 
Farmers'  paint,  207. 
Fenton's  anti-friction  metal,  179. 
Fictitious  linseed  oil,  215. 
Files,  diamond,  to  make,  255. 

Glass  gilding,  203. 
Grinding,   for    signs,   etc., 

How  to  photograph  on,  236. 
How  to  write  on  in  the  sun, 

Pivot,  255. 

236. 

And  rasps,  old,  how  to  recut, 

Plate,  238. 

183. 

Soluble,  203. 

Finishing  with  one  coat  of  var- 

Staining, 200. 

nish,  221. 
Fish,  angler's  secret  for,  235. 

To  cut  round  or  oval  without 
a  diamond,  262. 

Oil  paints  211. 

To  drill  and  ornament,  204. 

Flask  glass,  238. 
Fluoric  acid,  200. 

To  preserve  from  the  rays 
of  the  sun,  268. 

Foil,  liquid,  for  silvering  glass 

To  transfer  prints,  etc.,  to, 

globes,  181. 

236. 

Frames,  etc..  varnish  for,  220. 
French  finish  for  leather,  228. 

Transparent  for,  266. 
Window,  238. 

Gold  plate,  171. 

Paint  for,  270. 

Patent  leather,  228. 
Polish  for  leather,  230. 

Glaziers'  putty,  211. 
Globes,  glass,  liquid  foil  for  sil- 

Friction in  machinery,  to  lessen, 

vering,  181. 

244. 

Glues,  206,  209,  267. 

Frosting  and  whitening  silver 
goods,  pickle  for,  245. 
Fumigating,  pastiles  for,  270. 
Furniture,  cream,  222. 

Gold,  alloys  for,  169.  170. 
Amalgam  to  make,  260. 
To  plate  with,  260. 
Artificial,  170. 

Fillings,  222. 

Colored,  169. 

Oils,  244. 

Common,  169. 

Polish,  221. 

Dutch,  223. 

Game,  trapper's  secret  for,  235. 
Gas,  to  purify,  182. 
German  brass,  179. 

Enamelling  on,  194. 
Factitious,  169. 
From  gilt  metal,  to  recover, 

Silver,  167,  171,  174. 

198. 

Gear,  cutting,  262. 

From  lace,  etc.,  to  separate, 

Gears,  bevel.  263. 

198. 

Gilders'  gold  sice,  204, 

Green  and  red,  197. 

Pickle.  206. 

Imitation,  174,  248. 

Gilding  china  and  glass,  200. 

Ink,  200. 

Coloring  of,  197. 

Lacquer,  176,  187,  216. 

Elkington's  patent,  196. 
French  burnished,  223. 

Lustre  for  stoneware,  etc., 
200. 

Glass  signs,  etc.,  204. 
Letters  on  wood,  etc.,  204. 
Metal,  169. 

Oroide  of,  248. 
Plate,  French,  171. 
Plating  solution,  to   make 

Wood,  224,  225. 

and  apply,  260. 

Gilt  frames,  reviver  for,  225. 
Wares,  metal  for,  172. 
Glass,  bottle,  237. 

Plating  powders,  to  make 
and  apply,  261. 
Polishing  powder  for,  197. 

Colored,  244. 

Powder,  true,  222. 

Crown  238. 

Refining,  193. 

Crystal,  237. 

Silvering  on  metals,  197. 

German,  238. 

Solders,  168,  248. 

Etching  on,  199. 

Solution  for  electro-plating, 

Flask,  238. 

to  make,  258. 

24 

278 


IXDEX. 


Gold,  tarnished  in  soldering,  to 
cleanse,  258. 

Tinge,  how  to  give  to  silver, 
246. 

To  enamel,  261. 

To  hard  solder,  258. 

To  refine,  257. 

Varnish,  216,  217,  226. 
Gong  metal,  Chinese,  171. 
Grain,  black,  for  harness  leather, 

tan. 

Grained  tin,  177. 

Grates,  etc.,  Brunswick  black  for, 

188. 
Gravel   houses,  how  to    build, 

212. 

Gravers,  to  temper,  198,  253. 
Grease,  anti-friction,  271. 

For  railway  axles,  Booth's, 

L'71. 
From  stone  or  marble,  to 

extract,  234,  270. 
Green  bronze  dip,  177. 
Grindstones,  from  common  sand, 

to  make,  239. 

Gun  barrels,  browning  for,  188, 
267. 

Compositions  for,  189. 
Metal,  171. 

Mountings,  alloy  for,  171. 
Stocks,  varnish  and  polish 

for,  189. 

Guns,  bronzing  fluid  for,  173. 
Hair-springs  in  watches,  to  re- 
duce, 171. 

To  weaken,  253. 
Hard  alloy,  Chantry's,  171. 
Solder,  168. 
Steel,  to  drill  into,  247. 
White  metal,  1(>7. 

For  buttons,  171. 
Hardening,  compound  used  in 
Damascus  sword  blades,  267. 
For  Britannia,  166. 
And  filling    for  fire-proof 

safes,  189. 
Harmstadt's  true   imitation  of 

gold  and  silver,  170. 
Harness,  blacking  for,  270. 
Varnish,  226,  268. 
Fxlge,  beat  color  for,  225. 
Leather,    grain    black   for, 

227. 

Process  of  tannin?,  in  from 
six  to  thirty  days,  228. 


Heel  ball,  shoemakers',  226. 
Hide,  raw,  to  tan,  228. 
Hollow  ware,  to  enamel,  192. 
Horn,  dyes  for,  233. 

In     imitation     of    tortoise 

shell,  232. 

Hydraulic  cewent  paint,  266. 
Imitation  of  gold,  170,  174. 

Of  ivory,  to  cast  figures  in 
245. 

Of  mahogany,  220. 

Of  platinum",  174. 

Of  silver,  1<I7,  170,174. 
Impressions,   metal  for  taking, 

167. 
Injections,  anatomical  metal  for, 

Ink,  copying,  267. 
Gold,  200. 
Indelible  267. 
Perpetual,   for  tombstones, 

etc.,  234,  267. 
Printing,  239. 
Silver,  200. 

Inscriptions  on  metals,  185. 
Iron,  brassing,  192. 

Bronze,  paint  for,  177. 

Case-hardening  for,  184. 

Castings,  to  bronze,  176. 

Lustre,  183. 

Paint,  compound,  207. 

Poor,  to  improve,  184. 

Tinning,  178. 

Transparent  blue  for,  186. 

Varnish  for,  183, 185. 

To  case-harden,  247. 

To  copper  the   surface  of, 

187» 

To  galvanize,  180. 
To  prevent,  from  rusting, 

270. 
To  tin,  for  soldering,  etc., 

187. 
Wire,  to  copper  the  surface 

of,  187. 

Mould,  to  remove,  270. 
Ivory  etching,  fluid  for,  233. 
To  gild,  233. 
To  silver,  206. 
To  soften,  233. 
To  whiten,  233. 
Japan  drier,  212. 

Flow,  for  tin,  186. 
Liquid,  for  leather,  226. 
Japanese  cement,  267. 


INDEX. 


279 


Japanners'  copal  varnish,  216. 
Jewellers'  alloys,  248. 

Armenian  cement,  198. 
Gold  compositions,  169. 
Soldering  fluid,  178. 
Turkish  cement,  198. 
Jet  black,  red  or  blue,  221. 
Jewelry,  old  reviver  of,  198. 
Journal  boxes,  alloy  for,  179, 180. 
Kustitien's  metal   for    tinning, 

179. 
Lace,  etc.,  to  separate  gold  and 

silver  from,  198. 
Lacmier,  color  for,  177. 

Directions  for  making,  175. 
For  brass,  175,  17ti,  177. 
For  bright  iron  work;  267. 
For    philosophical    instru- 
ments, 177. 
For  small  arms,  267. 
For  water-proof  paper,  267. 
Good,  176. 
Gold  216. 

For  tin,  187. 
Lead  pipes,  174. 

Plates,  to  joint,  182. 
Shot,  174. 

Leather,  brilliant,  French  var- 
nish for,  226. 
Cement  for,  226. 
Dyes  for,  230. 
French,  finish  for,  228. 
Frencli  patent,  228. 
Polish  or  dressing  for.  230. 
Harness,   grain    Mack  for, 

227. 

Liquid,  Japan,  for,  226. 
Process  of  tanning  in  from 

six  to  thirty  days,  228. 
Stains  for,  227. 
To  dye  blue,  red  or  purple, 

226. 

Lever    escapement    of    watch, 
depth  of,  to  change,  251. 
Of     anchor   -   escapement 
watches,  to  lengthen  with- 
out hammering  or  solder- 
ing, 245. 
Of  watch,  when  of  proper 

length,  to  tell,  251. 
Pallets,    when    of    proper 

size,  to  tell,  252. 
Liard,  271. 

Lime,  deposits  of,  in  boilers,  to 
prevent,  182. 


Lining  metal,  for  boxes  of  rail- 
road cars,  167. 
To  make,  264. 

Linseed  oil,  fictitious,  215. 

Liquid  foil  for  silvering  glass 
globes,  etc.,  181. 
Glue,  209,  268. 
Red,  228. 

Lithographs  upon  wood,  to  ad- 
here, 268. 

Looking-glass  plate,  238. 

Looking-glasses,  silvering  with 
pure  silver,  202. 

Lubricating  oil,  patent,  183. 

Lustre     gold,     for     stoneware, 
china,  etc.,  200. 
Iron,  183. 

Machines,  putting  together,  264. 

Magic  Paper,  239. 

Mahogany  color  219. 
Imitation  of,  220. 

Marble,  broken,  powerful  cement 

Cement  for,  266. 

Perpetual  ink  for,  267. 

To  clean,  234,  270. 

To  cut  and  polish,  234. 

To  stain,  234. 

Tree,  231. 
Marine  glue,  268. 
Maltha  or  Greek  mastic,  265. 
Mastic  cement,  213. 

Varnish,  215. 
Metal,  albata,  171. 

Anti-friction,  Fenton's,  179. 

Babbitt,  179. 

Bath,  178. 

Bell,  171,  174. 
Parisian,  174. 
Superior,  243. 

Britannia,  171,  173,  178. 

Buttonmakers',  172. 

Cannon,  173. 

Chinese  gong,  171. 

Clock,  blue,  172. 

For  anatomical    injections, 
174. 

For  gilt  wares,  172. 

For  sliding  levers  of  loco- 
motives, 172. 

For  taking  impressions,  167. 

Gilding,  169. 

Gun,  171. 

Hard  white,  167. 

Hard  white  for  buttons,  171. 


280 


INDEX. 


Metal,  Kustitten's,  for  tinning,  179. 

Paint,  oil,  to  reduce  with  water, 

Lining,  to  make,  I 

212. 

Muntz,  for  ships,  180. 

Paints,  176,  177,  207,  208. 

Prince's,  174. 

Painting,  269. 

Queen's,  174,  178. 
Reflector,  172. 

Paper  for  draughtsmen,  etc.,  270. 
For  photographing,  23li. 

Rivet,  167. 

Magic,  239. 

Shot,  172. 

To  marble,  231. 

Silver  colored,  fine,  167. 

Parchment,  glues  for,  267. 

Socket,  for  locomotive  axle- 

To  make  paper  into,  232. 

trees,  172. 

Pastes,  2:<o,  27o,  271. 

Speculum,  178. 
Type,  173. 

Pastiles  for  fumigating,  270. 
Patent  leather,  French,  228. 

White,  172. 

Pea  brown,  210. 

Yellow  dipping,  174. 

Pewter,  178. 

Metals,  gold  silvering  on,  197. 

Pewterers'  solders,  168,  178. 

Melting  point  of,  171. 
Paste  for  cleaning,  271. 

Photograph  on  glass,  how  to,  236. 
Pickle  for  frosting  and  whiten- 

Planing, 262. 

ing  silver  goods,  245. 

Metallic  oxides,  to  reduce,  191. 

Pickle,  gilders',  206. 

Mildew  from  furniture,  polish 

Picture,  to  print  a,   from    the 

for  removing,  221. 
Milk  paint  for  barns,  208. 
Mill  dams,  240. 

print  itself,  24.">. 
Pigments,  stained  glass,  201. 
Pinchbeck,  167. 

Millstones,  holes  in,  to  fill,  239. 
Old,  fitting  new  back  in,239. 
Mirrors  of  reflecting  telescopes, 

Pinions,  worn,  to  remedy,  256. 
Pith  for  cleaning  pinions,  251. 
Pivot  for  watches,  2.31. 

173. 

Planing  metals,  262. 

Mixture  for  silvering,  178. 
Mordant  varnish,  217. 

Planing  perpendicularly,  262. 
Plaster  of  Paris  cast,  from  a  per- 

Mosaic gold  powder  for  bronz- 

son's face,  to  take,  244. 

ing,  222. 

Plaster  of  Paris,  substitute  for, 

Moths  in  furs  or  woollens,  to  pre- 

209. 

vent,  235. 

Plate,  British,  171. 

Moulds  and  dies,  197. 

Glass,  2:18. 

Naples  yellow,  211. 

Platina,  to  hard  solder,  258. 

Nap  on  cloth,  to  raise.  235. 

Platin,  Birmingham,  171. 

Nitric  acid  ormolu  dip,  old,  to 

Plating  powders,  to  make  and 

repair,  175. 

applv,  261. 

Northern   light   burning  fluid, 

Plumbers'  cement,  188. 

248. 

Solder,  168, 

Oil,  drying,  212. 

Polishes,  18!»,  216,  221,  222,  230. 

Furniture,  222,  244. 
Linseed,  fictitious,  215. 

Polishing  broaches,  to  make,  255. 
Porcelain  colors,  202. 

Lubricating,  183. 

Finish,  211. 

Paintings,  old,  to  clean  and 

Gilding,  203. 

renew,  245. 

Powder,  bronze,  224. 

Watchmakers',  271. 

Copper,  223. 

Olive  bronze  dip  for  brass,  177. 
Organ  pipes,  174. 
Ormolu  dips  and  dipping  acids, 

Dutch  gold,  223. 
Polishing,  for  gold  and  sil- 
ver, 197. 

175. 

Red  bronze,  173. 

Oroide  of  gold,  best,  248. 
Oxide  of  zinc,  to  reduce,  248. 
Oxides,  metallic,  to  reduce,  191. 

Printing  characters,  174. 
Ink,  Savage's,  239. 
Rollers,  239. 

INDEX. 


281 


Prints,  etc.,  to  transfer  to  glass, 

236. 

Prussian  blue,  210. 
Purple  satin,  218. 

Stain,  219. 
Putty,  211. 

Queen's  metal,  174,  178. 
Rasps,  old,  how  to  recut,  183. 
Razors,  to  temper,  189. 
Red,  light  brown  stain,  219. 
Sprinkle,  bookbinders',  231. 
Stain,  219. 

Refining  gold  and  silver,  193. 
Reflecting  telescopes,  mirrors  of, 

173. 

Reflector,  metal,  172. 
Renovator,  clothing.  236. 
Reviver,  block  for  cloth,  235. 
Rivet  metal,  167. 
Rollers,  printing,  239. 
Routing,  cheap,  213. 
Bow  pink,  210,  219. 
Rosewood,  satin,  220. 
Ruby  pin  in  watch,  to  tighten, 

253. 

Rust  from  iron  or  steel,  to  re- 
move, 249. 
Safes,  fire-proof,  hardening  and 

filling  for,  188. 
Satin,  crimson,  218. 
Purple,  218. 
Rosewood,  220. 
Wood,  to  imitate,  220. 
Saws,  etc.,  to  temper.  180,  189. 

Broken,  to  mend,  185. 
Scaling,  cast  iron,  182. 
Screws,  to  blue  evenly,  254. 
Shaved  tin,  177. 
Shells,  silvering,  180. 
Sheathing,  patent,  Baron  Wet- 

terstedt's,  174. 

Shot,  lead,  174. 

Metal,  172. 

Silks,  old,  to  renew,  235. 
Silver,  English  standard  for,  170 
From  copper,  to-  MMMte, 

178. 
From  lace,  etc.,  to  separate, 

198. 

Imitations,  170,  174. 
Leaf,  spurious,  172. 
Plating,  195. 
Fluid,  197. 
Powder,  to  make  and 

apply,  261. 
24* 


Silver  Plating  solution,  to  make 

and  apply,  261. 
Solution  for  electro-plating, 
to  make,  259. 

Frozen,  to  restore,  249. 
Tarnished  in  soldering,  to 

cleanse,  258. 
To  enamel.  261. 
To  hard  solder,  258. 
To  refine,  193,  257. 
To  write  in,  243. 
Ware,  to  wash,  262. 
Silvering  by  heat,  177. 

Glass  globes,  etc.,  liquid  foil 


lass  glo 
for,  181. 


Powder,  188. 
Size,  curriers',  230. 

Gold,  gilders',  204. 
Sizing  for  boots  and  shoes,  in 

treeing  out,  225. 
Skirting,  230.  - 

Sliding  levers  for  locomotives, 

metal  for,  172. 
Smalt,  215. 
Socket   metal    for    locomotive 

axletrees,  172. 
Soft  solder  articles,  to,  258. 
Solders,  166,  167,  168,  169,  172, 

178,  248. 

Soldering  fluid,  186. 
Soluble  glass,  203. 
Spanish  tutania,  167. 
Speculum  metal,  178. 
Springs,  to  temper,  185. 

Of  watches,  to  temper,  246, 

253. 

Sprinkle,  red  231. 
Stafls,  cylinders,  or  pinions  of 
watches,  to    temper  without 
springing  them,  254. 
Stained  glass  pigments,  201. 
Statuary  bronze,  173. 
Stains  for  wood,  etc.,  218,  219, 
220,  221,  227,  228,  234. 
Color  of,  to  improve,  206. 
To  remove,  271. 
And  spots  from  furniture, 

to  remove,  221. 
Steam-boilers,  pipes,  etc.,   soft 

cement  for,  186,  265. 
Stew  dishes,  copper,  to  tin,  187. 
Steel,  burnt,  to  restore,  183,  243, 
249. 


282 


INDEX. 


Steel  composition,  to   toughen, 

183. 

Poor,  to  improve,  ! 
Surface  of,  to  copper,  187. 
Transparent,  blue  for,  186. 
To  gild,  180. 
To  hard  solder.  28ft. 
To  melt  as  easily  as  lead, 

183. 
To  remove    blueing    from, 

To  soften,  181. 

Stone,    to    extract    grease 

from  270. 
Stripping   liquid,  silversmiths', 

Stuffing-boxes    of  locomotives, 

alloy  for,  172. 
Symbals,  alloy  for,  173. 
Tannin-,  B7, 

Teeth,  depth  of,  in  gear,  263. 
Teeth,  number  of,  in  p 
Temper  from  delicate  steel  pieces 

of  watches,  to  draw 
Tempering,  181. 
Liquid,  184. 
Tinning,  178. 
Acid,  175. 

Flux,  improved,  188. 
Tin  cans,  size  of  sheet,  188. 
Tin  plate,  crystallized,  187. 
To  crystallize,  188. 
Ware,  to  mend,  188. 
Tombac,  I(i7,  174. 
Transparent  blue    for    iron    or 

steel,  186. 

Transparent  blue  for  glass,  266. 
Trapper's  secret  for  game,  235. 
Tree  marble,  231. 
Tutania,  Spanish,  167. 
Tutena?,  174. 
Type  metal,  173. 
Varnishes,   183,   189,   215,  216, 

217,  218.  220,  226,  231,  268. 
Veneers,  dyes  for,  245. 
Wainscot,  to  imitate.  220. 
Wash  for  barns  and  nouses,  207. 
Watch  cleaning,  249. 

Hands,  red,  to  make,  -2\7. 

Movements,  to  frost,  261. 

Watches,  bushing,  alloy  for  pivot 

holes,  etc.,  248. 

Watches,  cannon  pinion  on  cen- 
tre arbor,  to  tighteu  wheu  too 

loose,  247. 


Watches,  chain  running  off  the 

,  to  prevent.  I 
Watches,  depth  of  lever  escape- 

incut,  to  change,  2.~>1. 
Wat.-h.-s,  hair  spring,  171,  235. 
Watches,  in  b.-at,  to  put,  252. 

Levers  of,  to  Irnirthni,  245. 

1'ith  for  clranin.',  •_'.">  1. 

I'ivot  V.-.M..I  : 

Kut.y  pin,  to  tighten,  253. 

TO  hush,  •_•:.';. 

When    lever    is   of    proper 

length,  to  toll,  L'.'.l. 
Whm  pallets  are  of  proper 

H/c,  to  trll,  •_•.'.  1. 

Watchmakers'  biuv,,  17:-. 
Drill-. 

:  .  limr,  214. 
Water-proof  glue,  209. 

Yarni-hrs,  268. 
Wat.-rpr....iin.'  f..r  clothing  235. 

For  ponuis  rl.itli. 
Welding  cast  steel,  composition 

used  in,  182. 
White,  Argentine,  173. 
White  lead,  substitute  for,  208. 
Metal  for  table  bells,  172. 
Hani 

For  buttons,  171. 
Whitewash,  209. 

To  harden,  209. 
Window  glass,  238. 
Wood,  bronzing  or  gilding,  224, 

Wood,  stains  for,  218,  219,  220, 

Wood,  to  gild  letters  on,  204. 

To  petrify,  185. 

Wrought  iron,  case-hardening 
for,  185. 


Zinc  labels  for  writing  upon,  270. 
Solution  of  COJIJKT  on,  1'Jl. 
Tinning  acid  for,  ' 

nee  of  Bodies,  131. 
Rope,  124. 

Hull's  iinil  Diar/ram*  for  ll'nr};- 
ers  in  Tin,  Sheet  Jrow,  and 

.  sector  obtaining,  21. 
Arithmetical  signs  used  in  this 

work,  definition  of,  33. 
Breasts  for  cans,  12,  19. 
Canisters,  oil,  quantity  and 

quality  of  tin  required,  27. 


INDEX. 


Can*,  trusts  for,  12,  19. 

Cans,  one  inch  deep,  capacity  of, 

Plates,  tin,  size,  length,  breadth 
and  width,  26. 

(table,)  32. 
Circle  and  its  sections,  14. 

Pyramid  cake    set  of  patterns 
for,  to  describe,  15. 

Area  of  sector  of,  t<»  find,  3. 
Centre  of,  to  find,  20. 

Pyramid  or  cone,  contents  of,  22. 
Roofs,  hipped,  23. 

Circles,  etc.,  28,  29,  30,  31. 
Circles,  proportion  of,  4. 
Circumference  of  an  ellipse,  7. 
Circumference  of  any  diameter, 

Sector  for  obtaining  angles,  21. 
Of  a  circle,  area  of,  to  find  3. 
Tin  plates,  size,  length,  breadth 
and  width,  26. 

to  find,  3. 

Vessel,  cylindrical,  contents  in 

Cone,  envelope  for,  15. 
Frustum  of,  23. 

gallons  of,  25. 
Vessel,  flaring,  pattern,  to  de- 

Frustum of,  to  construct,  21. 
Or  frustum,  to  describe,  16. 

scribe,  15. 
Vessel,  flaring,  to  strike  the  side 

Rule  for  striking  out,  22. 

of,  18. 

Or  pyramid,  contents  of,  22. 
Covers,  bevel,  for  vessel*,  12,  19. 

Vessel,  square,  contents  in  gal- 
lons of,  24. 

Coven,  boiler,  oval,  13. 

Knrera,  80. 

Covers,  pitched,  for  paila,  etc., 

Steam  and  Steam-Engine*. 

to  describe,  12. 

Air  and  steam,  mixture  of,  55. 

Cycloid.  17. 
PtflJT"«l  equivalents,  (table,)  27. 
Diameter,  circumference  of  any, 

Boilers,  engine,  52. 
Engines,  steam,  power  of,  52. 
Expansion  with  equal  volumes 

to  find,  3. 

of  steam,  effect  of,  57. 

Elbow,  curved,  right  angled  and 
straight,  to  describe,  8,  9,  10, 

Fuel,  pain  in,  etc.,  57. 
Giflard's  injector,  60. 

11. 

Horse  power,  53. 

Ellipse,  area  and  circumference 

Indicated,  55. 

of,  to  find  7. 
Ellipse,  to  describe  an,  5,  6. 
En  velo|ie  for  cone,  to  describe,15. 
Flaring  vessel  pattern,  to  de- 

Nominal, 53. 
Of  several  non-condens- 
ing engines,  54. 
Hyperbolic  logarithms,  56. 

scribe,  15. 

Injector,  Giflard's,  60. 

Flaring  vessel,  to  strike  the  side 
of,  18. 

Slide  valves,  58. 
Steam  acting  expansively,  55. 

Frustum  of  cone,  contents   in 

Steam-engines,  power  of,  52. 

gallons  of,  23. 

Strength  of  material*,  91,  122. 

Frustum  of  cone,  to  construct,  21. 

7,,,-.s;,,ji.  elasticity  of,  132. 

Or  cone,  rule  for  striking 

Tunnel*,  118. 

out,  22. 

Vernier  scale,  121. 

Frustum  or  cone,  to  describe,  16. 

Water,  159. 

Heart,  to  describe  a,  17. 

Power,  87. 

Hipped  roofs,  23. 
Hopper  mill,  23. 
Lip  to  a  measure,  to  describe,  14. 

Projection  of,  86. 
Weight  of,  27. 
Waves,  88. 

Mill,  hopper,  23. 
Oval,  to  describe  an,  5. 

Wheel  gearing,  148-157. 
Wheels  and  gudgeons,  157. 

Pipes  of  various  metals,  weights 
of,  etc.,  to  ascertain,  25. 

ni,<,l  mills,  119. 
Wire  rope,  98,  125. 

THE   END. 


v> 


THE  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

Santa  Barbara 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW. 


